Literary criticism as a scientific discipline. Literary criticism as a science. Item. Main theoretical problems. Composition What kind of literature does literary criticism study?

Section II.

Summary of theoretical material

Topic I. Literary studies as a science.

(Source: Zenkin S.N. Introduction to literary criticism: Theory of literature: Textbook. M.: RSUH, 2000).

1. Prerequisites for the emergence of literary criticism as a science

2. The structure of literary criticism.

3. Literary disciplines and subjects of their study

3. Ways of approaching the text: commentary, interpretation, analysis.

4. Literary criticism and related scientific disciplines.

The subject of any science is structured, isolated in the continuous mass of real phenomena by this science itself. In this sense, science is logically prior to its subject, and in order to study literature, one must first ask the question of what literary criticism is.

Literary criticism is not something to be taken for granted; in terms of its status, it is one of the most problematic sciences. Indeed, why study fiction - that is, the mass production and consumption of obviously fictitious texts? And how is it justified in general (Yu.M. Lotman)? So, the very existence of the subject of literary criticism needs explanation.

Unlike a number of other cultural institutions that have a conventionally “fictional” nature (such as, for example, the game of chess), literature is a socially necessary activity - proof of this is its compulsory teaching at school in a variety of civilizations. In the era of romanticism (or at the beginning of the “modern era,” modernity) in Europe, it was realized that literature was not just a mandatory set of knowledge for a cultural member of society, but also a form of social struggle and ideology. Literary competition, unlike sports competition, is socially significant; hence the possibility, when speaking about literature, to actually judge life (“real criticism”). In the same era, the relativity of different cultures was discovered, which meant the rejection of normative ideas about literature (ideas of “good taste”, “correct language”, canonical forms of poetry, plotting). Culture has variations; it does not have one fixed norm.

These options have to be described not for the purpose of determining the best (so to speak, identifying the winner), but to objectively clarify the capabilities of the human spirit. This is what literary criticism that emerged in the romantic era did.

So, two historical prerequisites for scientific literary criticism are the recognition of the ideological significance of literature and cultural relativity.

The specific complexity of literary criticism lies in the fact that literature is one of the “arts,” but a very special one, since its material is language. Each science of culture is a kind of metalanguage for describing the primary language of the corresponding activity.

The difference between metalanguage and the language of an object, required by logic, is given by itself when studying painting or music, but not when studying literature, when one has to use the same (natural) language as literature itself. Reflection on literature is forced to carry out the difficult work of developing its own conceptual language, which would rise above the literature it studies. Many forms of such reflection are not scientific in nature. Historically, the most important of them are criticism, which arose many centuries before literary criticism, and another discourse that has long been institutionalized in culture - rhetoric. Modern literary theory largely uses the ideas of traditional criticism and rhetoric, but its general approach is significantly different. Criticism and rhetoric are always more or less normative in nature.

Rhetoric is a school discipline designed to teach a person how to construct correct, elegant, persuasive texts. From Aristotle comes the distinction between philosophy, which seeks truth, and rhetoric, which works with opinions. Rhetoric is needed not only by a poet or writer, but also by a teacher, lawyer, politician, and in general by any person who has to convince someone of something. Rhetoric is the art of fighting to convince the listener, standing on a par with the theory of chess or the art of war: all these are tactical arts that help to achieve success in competition. Unlike rhetoric, criticism has never been taught in school; it belongs to the free sphere of public opinion, therefore it has a stronger individual, original principle. In the modern era, a critic is a free interpreter of a text, a type of “writer.” Criticism uses the achievements of rhetorical and literary knowledge, but does this in the interests of literary and/or social struggle, and the appeal of criticism to the general public puts it on a par with literature. So, criticism is located at the intersection of the boundaries of rhetoric, journalism, fiction, and literary criticism.

Another way of classifying metaliterary discourses is by “genre” distinguishing between three types of text analysis: commentary, interpretation, poetics. A commentary is typically characterized by an expansion of the text, a description of all kinds of extra-texts (these are the facts of the author’s biography or the history of the text, the responses of other people to it; the circumstances mentioned in it - for example, historical events, the degree of veracity of the text; the relationship of the text with the linguistic and literary norms of the era , which may become obscure to us, like outdated words; the meaning of deviations from the norm is the author’s ineptitude, adherence to some other norm, or a conscious breakdown of the norm). When commenting, the text is fragmented into an unlimited number of elements related to the context in the broadest sense of the word. Interpretation reveals a more or less coherent and holistic meaning in the text (always necessarily partial in relation to the whole of the text); it always comes from some conscious or unconscious ideological premises, it is always biased - politically, ethically, aesthetically, religiously, etc. It comes from a certain norm, i.e. this is a typical activity of a critic. The scientific theory of literature, since it deals with the text and not the context, is left with poetics - the typology of artistic forms, more precisely the forms and situations of discourse, since they are often indifferent to the artistic quality of the text. In poetics, a text is viewed as a manifestation of the general laws of narration, composition, character systems, and language organization. Initially, literary theory is a transhistorical discipline about eternal types of discourse, and it has been this way since Aristotle. In the modern era, its goals have been rethought. A.N. Veselovsky formulated the need for historical poetics. This combination - history + poetics - means recognition of the variability of culture, the change in it of different forms, different traditions. The process of such a change also has its own laws, and their knowledge is also the task of literary theory. So, the theory of literature is not only a synchronic, but also a diachronic discipline; it is a theory not only of literature itself, but also of the history of literature.

Literary studies correlates with a number of related scientific disciplines. The first of these is linguistics. The boundaries between literary criticism and linguistics are fluid; many phenomena of speech activity are studied both from the point of view of their artistic specificity and beyond it, as purely linguistic facts: for example, narrative, tropes and figures, style. The relationship between literary criticism and linguistics on the subject can be characterized as osmosis (interpenetration), between them there is, as it were, a common strip, a condominium. In addition, linguistics and literary criticism are connected not only by subject matter, but also by methodology. In the modern era, linguistics provides methodological techniques for the study of literature, which has given grounds to combine both sciences within the framework of one general discipline - philology. Comparative-historical linguistics developed the idea of ​​the internal diversity of languages, which was then projected into the theory of fiction; structural linguistics provided the basis for structural-semiotic literary criticism.

From the very beginning of literary criticism, history interacts with it. True, a significant part of its influence is associated with commentary activity, and not theoretical-literary activity, with a description of the context. But as historical poetics develops, the relationship between literary criticism and history becomes more complex and becomes bilateral: there is not just an import of ideas and information from history, but an exchange. For the traditional historian, the text is an intermediate material that must be processed and overcome; the historian is busy “criticizing the text,” rejecting unreliable (fictional) elements in it and isolating only reliable data about the era. A literary critic works with the text all the time - and discovers that its structures find their continuation: in the real history of society. This, in particular, is the poetics of everyday behavior: relying on patterns and structures extrapolated to extraliterary reality.

The development of this two-way relationship between literary criticism and history was particularly stimulated by the emergence and development of semiotics. Semiotics (the science of signs and sign processes) developed as an extension of linguistic theories. She has developed effective procedures for analyzing text, both verbal and non-verbal, for example, in painting, cinema, theater, politics, advertising, propaganda, not to mention special information systems from maritime flag codes to electronic codes. The phenomenon of connotation, which is clearly observed in fiction, turned out to be especially important; that is, literary criticism here too has become a privileged area for the development of ideas extrapolated to other types of sign activity; However, literary works are not only of a semiotic nature and cannot be reduced to only symbolic discrete processes.

Two more related disciplines are aesthetics and psychoanalysis. Aesthetics interacted more with literary criticism in the 19th century, when theoretical reflection on literature and art was often carried out in the form of philosophical aesthetics (Schelling, Hegel, Humboldt). Modern aesthetics has shifted its interests to a more positive, experimental sphere (specific analysis of ideas about the beautiful, ugly, funny, sublime in different social and cultural groups), and literary criticism has developed its own methodology, and their relationship has become more distant. Psychoanalysis, the latest of the “companions” of literary criticism, is a partly scientific, partly practical (clinical) activity that has become an important source of interpretative ideas for literary criticism: psychoanalysis provides effective diagrams of unconscious processes, also identified in literary texts. The main two types of such schemes are, firstly, Freudian “complexes”, the symptoms of which Freud himself began to identify in the literature; secondly, Jung’s “archetypes” are prototypes of the collective unconscious, which are also widely found in literary texts. The difficulty here lies precisely in the fact that complexes and archetypes are discovered too widely and easily and are therefore devalued and do not allow us to determine the specifics of the text.

This is the circle of metaliterary discourses in which literary criticism finds its place. It grew out of the process of reworking criticism and rhetoric; it has three approaches - commentary, interpretation and poetics; it interacts with linguistics, history, semiotics, aesthetics, psychoanalysis (as well as psychology, sociology, theory of religion, etc.). The place of literary criticism turns out to be uncertain: it often deals with “the same thing” as other sciences, sometimes approaching the boundaries beyond which science becomes art (in the sense of “art” or practical “art” like military science). This is due to the fact that literature itself in our civilization occupies a central position among other types of cultural activity, which determines the problematic position of the science of it.

Literature: Aristotle. Poetics (any publication); Genette J. Structuralism and literary criticism // Genette J. Figures: Works on poetics: In 2 volumes. T. 1. M., 1998; It's him. Criticism and poetics // Ibid. T. 2; It's him. Poetics and history // Ibid.; Lomman Yu.M. The structure of a literary text. M., 1970; Todorov Ts. Poetics / / Structuralism: “for” and “against” M. 1975; Tomashevsky B.V. Theory of Literature: Poetics (any edition); Jacobson R.O. Linguistics and poetics // Structuralism: “for” and “against” M. 1975.

Literary criticism as a science arose at the beginning of the 19th century. Of course, literary works have existed since antiquity. Aristotle was the first who tried to systematize them in his book; he was the first to give a theory of genres and a theory of types of literature (epic, drama, lyric poetry). Plato created a story about ideas (idea → material world → art). Literature is an art form; it creates aesthetic values, and therefore is studied from the point of view of various sciences.

Literary studies studies the fiction of various peoples of the world in order to understand the features and patterns of its own content and the forms that express them. The subject of literary criticism is not only fiction, but also all the artistic literature of the world - written and oral. Modern literary criticism consists of:

o literary theory

o history of literature

o literary criticism.

The subject of literary criticism is not only fiction, but also all the artistic literature of the world - written and oral.

Literary theory studies the general laws of the literary process, literature as a form of social consciousness, literary works as a whole, the specifics of the relationship between the author, work and reader. Develops general concepts and terms. Literary theory interacts with other literary disciplines, as well as history, philosophy, aesthetics, sociology, and linguistics.

Poetics - studies the composition and structure of a literary work. The theory of the literary process studies the patterns of development of genders and genres. Literary aesthetics studies literature as an art form. Literary history studies the development of literature. Divided by time, by direction, by place. Literary criticism deals with the evaluation and analysis of literary works. Critics evaluate a work in terms of aesthetic value. From a sociological perspective, the structure of society is always reflected in works, especially ancient ones, so she also studies literature.

Literary studies includes 3 cycles of disciplines:

· History of national literatures (this is the study of issues of the creative evolution of the writer, as well as spiritual and historical issues of the literary process)

· Theory of literature (study of the general laws of literature):

A) studying the features of the image

B) the study of the artistic whole from the point of view of the artistic. Contents and art. forms.

C) study of the nature, structure of the f-ii

D) study of trends and patterns of literature. ist. process.

D) study of objects. Scientific Methodologies.

· Literary criticism.

Auxiliary literary disciplines:

1. textual criticism – studies the text as such: manuscripts, editions, editions, time of writing, author, place, translation and comments

2. paleography - the study of ancient text carriers, manuscripts only

3. bibliography - an auxiliary discipline of any science, scientific literature on a particular subject

4. library science - the science of collections, repositories of not only fiction, but also scientific literature, union catalogues.

Literary criticism is the science of fiction, its origin, essence and development. Modern literary criticism is a complex and moving system of disciplines. There are three main branches of literary criticism. Literary theory studies the general laws of the structure and development of literature. The subject of literary history is primarily the past of literature as a process or as one of the moments of this process. Literary criticism is interested in the relatively simultaneous, “today’s” state of literature; it is also characterized by the interpretation of the literature of the past from the point of view of modern social and artistic tasks. The affiliation of literary criticism with literary criticism as a science is not generally recognized.

Poetics as part of literary criticism

The most important part of literary criticism is poetics- the science of the structure of works and their complexes, the creativity of writers in general, literary movements, as well as artistic eras. Poetics correlates with the main branches of literary criticism: in the plane of literary theory, it gives general poetics, i.e. the science of the structure of any work; in the plane of literary history, there is historical poetics, which studies the development of artistic structures and their individual elements (genres, plots, stylistic images); the application of the principles of poetics in literary criticism is manifested in the analysis of a specific work, in identifying the features of its construction. In many ways, the stylistics of artistic speech occupies a similar position in literary studies: it can be included in the theory of literature, in general poetics (as a study of the stylistic and speech level of structure), in the history of literature (the language and style of a given direction), as well as in literary criticism (stylistic analyzes modern works). Literary criticism as a system of disciplines is characterized not only by the close interdependence of all its branches (for example, literary criticism is based on data from the theory and history of literature, and the latter take into account and comprehend the experience of criticism), but also the emergence of second-line disciplines. There is the theory of literary criticism, its history, the history of poetics (to be distinguished from historical poetics), and the theory of stylistics. The movement of disciplines from one row to another is also characteristic; Thus, literary criticism over time becomes the material of literary history, historical poetics, etc.

There are also many auxiliary literary disciplines: literary archiving, bibliography of fiction and literary literature, heuristics (attribution), paleography, textual criticism, text commentary, theory and practice of editing, etc. In the mid-20th century, the role of mathematical methods (especially statistics) in literary criticism increased , mainly in poetry, stylistics, textual criticism, where it is easier to distinguish commensurate elementary “segments” of structure (see). Auxiliary disciplines are a necessary base for the main ones; at the same time, in the process of development and complexity, they can reveal independent scientific tasks and cultural functions. The connections between literary criticism and other humanities are diverse, some of which serve as its methodological basis (philosophy, aesthetics, hermeneutics, or the science of interpretation), others are close to it in terms of tasks and subject of research (folklore, general art history), and others have a general humanitarian orientation ( history, psychology, sociology). Multifaceted connections between literary studies and linguistics, conditioned not only by the commonality of the material (language as a means of communication and as the “primary element” of literature), but also by some similarity in the epistemological functions of word and image and some similarity of their structures. The fusion of literary criticism with other humanities disciplines was previously recorded by the concept of philology as a synthetic science that studies spiritual culture in all its linguistic and written forms, incl. literary, manifestations; in the 20th century, this concept usually conveys the commonality of two sciences - literary criticism and linguistics, but in a narrow sense it means textual criticism and text criticism.

The beginnings of art history and literary knowledge originate in ancient times in the form of mythological ideas (this is how the ancient differentiation of art is reflected in the myths). Judgments about art are found in the most ancient monuments - in the Indian Vedas (10-2 centuries BC), in the Chinese “Book of Legends” (“Shijing”, 14-5 centuries BC), in the ancient Greek “Iliad” and "Odyssey" (8-7 centuries BC). In Europe, the first concepts of art and literature were developed by ancient thinkers. Plato, in line with objective idealism, examined aesthetic problems, incl. the problem of beauty, the epistemological nature and educational function of art, gave the main information on the theory of art and literature (primarily the division into genres - epic, lyricism, drama). In the writings of Aristotle, while maintaining a general aesthetic approach to art, the formation of literary disciplines proper takes place - literary theory, stylistics, especially poetics. His essay “On the Art of Poetry,” containing the first systematic presentation of the foundations of poetics, opened a centuries-old tradition of special treatises on poetics, which over time acquired an increasingly normative character (this is already the “Science of Poetry,” 1st century BC, Horace). At the same time, rhetoric developed, within the framework of which the theory of prose and stylistics was formed. The tradition of composing rhetoric, like poetics, survived into modern times (in particular, in Russia: “A Brief Guide to Eloquence”, 1748, M.V. Lomonosov). In antiquity - the origins of literary criticism (in Europe): the judgments of early philosophers about Homer, the comparison of the tragedies of Aeschylus and Euripides in the comedy of Aristophanes "Frogs". The differentiation of literary knowledge occurs in the Hellenistic era, during the period of the so-called Alexandrian philological school (3-2 centuries BC), when, together with other sciences, literary criticism separated from philosophy and formed its own disciplines. The latter include bio-bibliography (“Tables”, 3rd century BC, Callimachus - the first prototype of a literary encyclopedia), criticism of the text from the point of view of its authenticity, commentary and publication of texts. Deep concepts of art and literature are also emerging in the countries of the East. In China, in line with Confucianism, the doctrine of the social and educational function of art is formed (Xunzi, c. 298-238 BC), and in line with Taoism, the aesthetic theory of beauty in connection with the universal creative principle of “Tao” (Laozi, 6-5 century BC).

In India, problems of artistic structure are developed in connection with the teachings about a special psychology of the perception of art - rasa (the treatise "Natyashastra", attributed to Bharata, around the 4th century, and later treatises) and about the hidden meaning of a work of art - dhvani ("The Doctrine of Echo" by Anandavardhana , 9th century), and since ancient times the development of literary criticism has been closely connected with the science of language, with the study of poetic style. In general, the development of literary criticism in the countries of the East was distinguished by the predominance of general theoretical and general aesthetic methods (along with textual and bibliographic works; in particular, the biobibliographic genre of tazkire became widespread in Persian-language and Turkic-language literatures). Historical and evolutionary studies appeared only in the 19th and 20th centuries. The connecting links between ancient and modern literary studies were Byzantium and the Latin literature of Western European peoples; medieval literary criticism, stimulated by the collection and study of ancient monuments, had a predominantly bibliographic and commentary bias. Research in the field of poetics, rhetoric, and metrics also developed. During the Renaissance, in connection with the creation of original poetics that corresponded to local and national conditions, the problem of language, going beyond rhetoric and stylistics, grew to the general theoretical problem of establishing modern European languages ​​as full-fledged material for poetry (Dante’s treatise “On Popular Speech”, “Defense and glorification of the French language", Du Bellay); the right of literary criticism to address modern artistic phenomena was also asserted (comments by G. Boccaccio to the “Divine Comedy”). However, since new literary criticism grew on the basis of the “discovery of antiquity,” the assertion of originality was contradictoryly combined with attempts to adapt elements of ancient poetics to new literature (transfer of the norms of Aristotle’s doctrine of drama to the epic in “Discourse on the Poetic Art”, T. Tasso). The perception of classical genres as “eternal” canons coexisted with the feeling of dynamism and incompleteness characteristic of the Renaissance. During the Renaissance, Aristotle's Poetics was rediscovered (the most important publication was carried out in 1570 by L. Castelvetro), which, together with J. Ts. Scaliger's Poetics (1561), had a strong influence on subsequent literary studies. At the end of the 16th century and especially in the era of classicism, the tendency to systematize the laws of art intensified; at the same time, the normative nature of artistic theory is clearly indicated. N. Boileau in “Poetic Art” (1674), having put aside general epistemological and aesthetic problems, devoted his efforts to the creation of harmonious poetics as a system of genre, stylistic, speech norms, the isolation and obligatory nature of which turned his treatise and related works (“Essay on criticism", 1711, A. Pope; "Epistole on poetry", 1748, A.P. Sumarokov, etc.) almost into literary codes. At the same time, in literary studies of the 17th and 18th centuries there is a strong tendency towards anti-normativity in understanding the types and genres of literature. In G.E. Lessing (“Hamburg Drama”) it acquired the character of a decisive attack against normative poetics in general, which prepared the aesthetic and literary theories of the romantics. On the basis of enlightenment, attempts also arise to justify the development of literature by local conditions, incl. environment and climate (“Critical reflections on poetry and painting”, 1719, J.B. Dubos). The 18th century was the time of the creation of the first historical and literary courses: “History of Italian Literature” (1772-82) by G. Tiraboschi, built on a historical consideration of the types of poetry “Lyceum, or Course of Ancient and Modern Literature” (1799-1805) by J. Laharpe. The struggle between historicism and normativity is marked by the works of the “father of English criticism” J. Dryden (“An Essay on Dramatic Poetry,” 1668) and S. Johnson (“Lives of the Most Eminent English Poets,” 1779-81).

At the end of the 18th century, a major shift was observed in European literary consciousness, which shook the stable hierarchy of artistic values. The inclusion of folklore monuments in the scientific horizon of medieval European, as well as eastern literatures, called into question the category of a model, whether in ancient art or in the Renaissance. A sense of the uniqueness of artistic criteria of different eras develops, most fully expressed by I. G. Herder (Shakespeare, 1773). The category of the special comes into its own in literary criticism - in relation to the literature of a given people or period, carrying within itself its own scale of perfection. Among the romantics, the feeling of different criteria resulted in the concept of different cultural eras expressing the spirit of the people and the time. Speaking about the impossibility of restoring the classical (ancient) form, contrasting it with the new form (which arose along with Christianity), they emphasized the eternal variability and renewal of art (F. and A. Schlegel). However, justifying modern art as romantic, permeated with Christian symbolism of the spiritual and infinite, the romantics imperceptibly, contrary to the dialectical spirit of their teaching, restored the category of model (in the historical aspect - the art of the Middle Ages). On the other hand, in the actual philosophical idealistic systems, the crown of which was the philosophy of Hegel, the idea of ​​​​the development of art was embodied in the concept of the progressive movement of artistic forms, replacing each other with dialectical necessity (for Hegel, these are symbolic, classical and romantic forms); the nature of the aesthetic and its difference from the moral and cognitive was philosophically substantiated (I. Kant); the inexhaustible - “symbolic” - nature of the artistic image was philosophically comprehended (F. Schelling). The philosophical period of literary criticism is a time of comprehensive systems, conceived as universal knowledge about art (and, of course, more broadly - about all being), “subduing” the history of literature, poetics, stylistics, etc.

The current of “philosophical criticism” in Russian literary criticism

In Russia in the 1820-30s, under the influence of German philosophical systems and at the same time, pushing away from them, a movement of “philosophical criticism” developed (D.V. Venevitinov, N.I. Nadezhdin, etc.). In the 1840s, V.G. Belinsky sought to link the ideas of philosophical aesthetics with the concepts of civil service of art and historicism (“sociality”). The series of his articles about A.S. Pushkin (1843-46) was essentially the first course in the history of new Russian literature. Belinsky's explanation of the phenomena of the past was associated with the development of theoretical problems of realism and nationality (understood - as opposed to the theory of “official nationality” - in the national democratic sense). By the mid-19th century, the field of literary studies in European countries was expanding: disciplines were developing that comprehensively studied the culture of a given ethnic group (for example, Slavic studies); the growth of historical and literary interests is everywhere accompanied by a switch of attention from great artists to the entire mass of artistic facts and from the world literary process to their national literature (“History of the poetic national literature of the Germans,” 1832 - 42, G.G. Gervinus). In Russian literary criticism, in parallel with this, ancient Russian literature was asserted in its rights; increasing interest in it marked the courses of M.A. Maksimovich (1839), A.V. Nikitenko (1845) and especially “The History of Russian Literature, Mainly Ancient” (1846) by S.P. Shevyrev.

Methodological schools of literary criticism

Pan-European methodological schools are emerging. The interest in mythology and folk symbolism awakened by romanticism was expressed in the works of the mythological school (J. Grimm and others). In Russia, F.I. Buslaev, not limiting himself to the study of the mythological basis, traced its historical fate, incl. interaction of folk poetry with written monuments. Subsequently, “younger mythologists” (including in Russia A.N. Afanasyev) raised the question of the origins of myth. Under the influence of the other side of the romantic theory - about art as the self-expression of the creative spirit - the biographical method took shape (S.O. Sainte-Beuve. Literary-critical portraits). Biographism, to one degree or another, runs through all modern literary studies, preparing psychological theories of creativity in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Influential in the second half of the 19th century was cultural-historical school. Focusing on the successes of the natural sciences, she sought to bring the understanding of causality and determinism in literary criticism to precise, tangible factors; this, according to the teachings of I. Taine (“History of English Literature”, 1863-64), is the trinity of race, environment and moment. The traditions of this school were developed by F. De Sanguis, V. Scherer, M. Menendesi-Pelayo, in Russia - N.S. Tikhonravov, A.N. Pypin, N.I. Storozhenko. As the cultural-historical method developed, its underestimation of the artistic nature of literature, considered primarily as a social document, strong positivist tendencies, and neglect of dialectics and aesthetic criteria were revealed. On the other hand, radical criticism in Russia, touching on the problems of the history of literature, emphasized the connection of the artistic process with the interaction and confrontation of various social groups, with the dynamics of class relations (“Essays on the Gogol period of Russian literature”, 1855-56, N.G. Chernyshevsky; “ On the degree of participation of nationalities in the development of Russian literature", 1858, N.A. Dobrolyubova). At the same time, the formulation of a number of theoretical problems (the function of art, nationality) by some revolutionary democrats was not free from normativity and simplification. Back in the 1840s, comparative historical literary criticism emerged within the framework of the study of folklore and ancient literature. Later, T. Benfey outlined the theory of the migration school, which explained the similarity of plots by communication between peoples (“Panchatantra”, 1859).

Benfey's theory stimulated both a historical approach to interethnic relations and interest in the poetic elements themselves - plots, characters, etc., but refused to study their genesis and often led to random, superficial comparisons. In parallel, theories arose that sought to explain the similarity of poetic forms by the unity of the human psyche ( folk psychological school H. Steinthal and M. Lazarus) and the animism common to primitive peoples (E.B. Taylor), which served as the basis for anthropological theory for ALang. Accepting the doctrine of myth as the primary form of creativity, Alexander N. Veselovsky directed the research towards specific comparisons; Moreover, in contrast to the migration school, he raised the question of the prerequisites for borrowing - “countercurrents” in the literature under influence. In “Historical Poetics”, clarifying the essence of poetry - from its history, he establishes the specific subject of historical poetics - the development of poetic forms and those laws according to which certain social content fit into some inevitable poetic forms - genre, epithet, plot (Veselovsky, 54). From the structure of a work of art as a whole, he approached the problems of poetics by A.A. Potebnya (“From Notes on the Theory of Literature,” 1905), who revealed the polysemy of the work, which seems to contain many contents, the eternal renewal of the image in the process of its historical life and the constructive the reader's role in this change. The idea of ​​the “internal form” of a word put forward by Potebnya contributed to the dialectical study of the artistic image and was promising for the subsequent study of poetic structure. In the last third of the 19th century, the cultural-historical method deepened with the help of a psychological approach (with G. Brandes). Arises psychological school(V. Wundt, D.N. Ovsyaniko-Kulikovsky, etc.). The intensification of comparative historical study led to the creation of a special discipline - comparative literature, or comparative studies (F. Baldansperger, P. Van Tieghem, P. Azar. In domestic literary criticism, this direction is represented by V.M. Zhirmunsky, M.P. Alekseev, N. I. Conrad and others). The process of development of literary criticism is becoming global, breaking down centuries-old barriers between the West and the East. In the countries of the East, histories of national literatures appeared for the first time, and systematic literary criticism began to emerge. At the end of the 19th century - and especially actively - from the beginning of the 20th century, Marxist literary criticism was formed, which paid main attention to the social status of art and its role in the ideological and class struggle. Although such representatives of this trend as G.V. Plekhanov, A.V. Lunacharsky and especially G. Lukach recognized the relative independence and sovereignty of artistic factors, in practice Marxist literary criticism led to their impoverished interpretations, especially among the ideologists of the so-called vulgar sociologism , which harshly called the writer to one or another class or social stratum.

Anti-positivist tendency

At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries in Western literary criticism an anti-positivist tendency emerged , which took basically three directions. Firstly, the right of intellectual-rational knowledge was disputed in favor of intuitive knowledge in relation to both the creative act and judgments about art (“Laughter”, 1900, A. Bergson); hence the attempts not only to refute the system of traditional literary categories (types and genera of poetry, genres), but also to prove their fundamental inadequacy to art: they determine not only the external structure of the work, but also its artistry (“Aesthetics...”, 1902, B. Croce ). Secondly, there was a desire to overcome the flat determinism of the cultural-historical school and build a classification of literature based on deep psychological and spiritual differentiations (this is the antithesis of two types of poetry - “Apollonian” and “Dionysian” in “The Birth of Tragedy from the Spirit of Music”, 1872, F .Nietzsche). V. Dilthey also sought to explain art by deep processes, insisting on the difference between “ideas” and “experiences” and identifying three main forms in “spiritual history”: positivism, objective idealism and dualistic idealism, or “ideologism of freedom.” This theory (see) was not free from the mechanical attachment of artists to each of the forms; in addition, she underestimated the moments of artistic structure, because art dissolved in the flow of the general worldview inherent in the era. Thirdly, the sphere of the unconscious was fruitfully involved in the explanation of art (S. Freud). However, the pansexualism characteristic of Freud’s followers impoverished the research results (such as the explanation of the artist’s entire work by the “Oedipus complex”). Applying psychoanalytic principles to art in a new way, he formulated the theory of the collective unconscious (archetypes) C. G. Jung (“On the relation of analytical psychology to a literary work”, 1922), under whose influence (as well as J. Fraser and the “Cambridge school” his followers) ritual-mythological criticism developed. Its representatives sought to find certain ritual patterns and collective unconscious archetypes in the works of all eras. Promoting the study of the foundations of genres and poetic devices (metaphors, symbols, etc.), this movement, in general rightfully subordinating literature to myth and ritual, dissolved literary criticism in ethnology and psychoanalysis. A special place in Western literary criticism has been occupied by searches based on the philosophy of existentialism. In contrast to historicism in the understanding of literary development, the concept of existential time was put forward, to which great works of art correspond (Heidegger M. Origin of the work of art. 1935; Steiger E. Time as a poet’s imagination, 1939). By interpreting poetic works as self-sufficient, self-contained truth and “prophecy,” the existentialist “interpretation” avoids the traditional genetic approach. Interpretation is determined by the linguistic and historical horizon of the interpreter himself.

“Formal school” in Russian literary criticism

Based on intuitionism and biographical impressionism, on the one hand, and on methods that ignored the specifics of art (cultural-historical school), on the other, arose in the 1910s “formal school” in Russian literary criticism(Yu.N. Tynyanov, V.B. Shklovsky, B.M. Eikhenbaum, to a certain extent close to them V.V. Vinogradov and B.V. Tomashevsky;). She sought to overcome the dualism of form and content by putting forward a new relationship: material (something belonging to the artistic act) and form (the organization of material in a work). This achieved an expansion of the space of form (previously reduced to style or some randomly selected moments), but at the same time, in the sphere of analysis and interpretation, functional ones, incl. philosophical and social, concepts of art. Through the Prague Linguistic Circle, the “formal school” had a significant influence on world literary studies, in particular on the “new criticism” and structuralism (which also inherited the ideas of T. S. Eliot). At the same time, along with further formalization and displacement of aesthetic aspects, there has also emerged a tendency to overcome the noted antinomy, which is insoluble within the framework of the “formal method”. A work of art began to be viewed as a complex system of levels, including both substantive and formal aspects (R. Ingarden). On the other hand, the direction of the so-called objective psychology of art (L.S. Vygotsky) arises, which interprets artistic phenomena as a “system of stimuli” that determine certain psychological experiences. As a reaction to “formal methods” and subjectivist tendencies, a sociological approach to literature developed in the 1960s, but sometimes with a straightforward attribution of literary phenomena to socio-economic factors. The middle of the 20th century is a time of rapprochement and confrontation between different methodological directions; Thus, sociologism, on the one hand, gravitates toward structuralism, and on the other, toward existentialism. In line with post-structuralism, a doctrine is being developed about a text with multiple meanings that hides an infinite number of cultural codes; Moreover, the sphere of intertextuality created in this way also includes factors that arose not only before the creation of the text in question, but also after it (R. Barthes, based on J. Derrida and J. Kristeva). At a new level, the study of ideology in its closest connections with mythopoetic and metaphorical thinking is also being restored (Clifford Geertz). Experiments in the synthesis of formal and philosophical paradigms of art were proposed by new domestic literary studies (M.M. Bakhtin, D.S. Likhachev, Yu.M. Lsggman, V.V. Ivanov, V.N. Toporov, etc.).

Literary theory studies the general laws of the literary process, literature as a form of social consciousness, literary works as a whole, the specifics of the relationship between the author, work and reader. Develops general concepts and terms.

Literary theory interacts with other literary disciplines, as well as history, philosophy, aesthetics, sociology, and linguistics.

Poetics - studies the composition and structure of a literary work.

The theory of the literary process - studies the patterns of development of genders and genres.

Literary aesthetics – studies literature as an art form.

Literary history studies the development of literature. Divided by time, by direction, by place.

Literary criticism deals with the evaluation and analysis of literary works. Critics evaluate a work in terms of aesthetic value.

From a sociological perspective, the structure of society is always reflected in works, especially ancient ones, so she also studies literature.

Auxiliary literary disciplines:

a) textual criticism – studies the text as such: manuscripts, editions, editions, time of writing, author, place, translation and comments

b) paleography - the study of ancient text carriers, manuscripts only

c) bibliography – an auxiliary discipline of any science, scientific literature on a particular subject

d) library science – the science of collections, repositories of not only fiction, but also scientific literature, union catalogues.

Now literature is considered as the above system, where everything is interconnected. The author always writes for the reader. There are different types of readers, as Chernyshevsky talks about. An example is Mayakovsky, who addressed his descendants through his contemporaries. The literary critic also turns to the personality of the author, his opinion, and biography. He is also interested in the reader's opinion.

Art and its types

Art is the main type of spiritual activity of people, serving to satisfy a person’s aesthetic feelings and his need for beauty.

A type of art is a form of exploration of the world according to the laws of beauty, when an artistic image is created, filled with a certain ideological and aesthetic content.

Functions of art:

Aesthetic – the ability to form artistic tastes, moral values, awakens creative personality traits.

Educational – personal development, impact on a person’s morality and worldview.

Informational – carries certain information.

Cognitive - knowledge of the world with special depth and expressiveness.

Communicative – artistic communication between the author and the recipient; connection to that time and place.

Ethnogenetic - preserving memory, embodies the appearance of the people.

Hedonic – bringing pleasure.

Transformative – stimulates the activity of the individual.

Compensatory – empathy for the hero.

Anticipation - the writer is ahead of his time.

Types of art: theater, music, painting, graphics, sculpture, literature, architecture, decor, cinema, photography, circus. About 400 types of activities.

The synthetic nature of art is the ability to holistically reflect life in the interconnection of all its aspects.

The ancients identified five types of art; the classification is based on a material medium. Music is the art of sounds, painting is the art of colors, sculpture is stone, architecture is plastic forms, literature is the word.

However, already Lesin, in the article “Laocoon or on the boundaries of painting,” issued the first scientific classification: the division into spatial and temporal arts.

From Lesin's point of view, literature is a temporary art.

Expressive and fine arts are also distinguished (sign principle). Expressive expresses emotions, conveys mood, figurative - embodies an idea.

Expressive art is music, architecture, abstract painting, lyrics.

Fine - painting, sculpture, drama and epic.

According to this classification, literature is an expressive art.

8.Origin of art. Totemism, magic, their connection with folklore and literature. Syncretism.

The word “art” has many meanings; in this case, it refers to the actual artistic activity and what is its result (work). Art as artistic creativity was distinguished from art in a broader sense (as skills, crafts). Thus, Hegel noted the fundamental difference between “artfully made things” and “works of art.”

Syncretism - an indivisible unity of different types of creativity - existed at an early stage of human development. This is connected with the ideas of primitive people about the world, with anthropomorphism in the consciousness of natural phenomena - the animation of the forces of nature, their likening to man. This was expressed in primitive magic - the idea of ​​ways to influence nature so that it would favor human life and his actions. One of the manifestations of magic is totemism - a complex of beliefs and rituals associated with ideas about the kinship between genera and certain species of animals and plants. Primitive people painted animals on the walls of caves, made them their intercessors, and in order to appease them, they danced and sang to the sounds of the first musical instruments. This is how painting and sculpture, pantomime and music were born.

Folklore is an oral form of artistic expression.

Gradually, rituals became more diverse, people began to perform ritual actions not only in front of their totems, but also when going hunting, before the arrival of spring. Not only ritual songs appeared, but also ordinary lyrical songs, as well as other genres - fairy tales, legends. This is how folklore began to develop - oral folk art.

The main features that distinguish folklore from fiction: existence in oral form, anonymity, variation, brevity.

9. Fiction as a form of art. Subject and object of literary creativity.

The ancients identified five types of art; the classification is based on a material medium. Music is the art of sounds, painting is the art of colors, sculpture is stone, architecture is plastic forms, literature is the word.

However, already Lesin, in the article “Laocoon or on the boundaries of painting,” issued the first scientific classification: the division into spatial and temporal arts.

From Lesin's point of view, literature is a temporary art.

Expressive and fine arts are also distinguished (sign principle). Expressive expresses emotions, conveys mood, figurative - embodies an idea.

-Expressive art is music, architecture, abstract painting, lyrics.

-Fine - painting, sculpture, drama and epic.

According to this classification, literature is an expressive art.

Literature is the art of words, which differs from other arts in its material.

The word somewhat limits our perception, but painting, sculpture, music are universal. On the one hand, this is a shortcoming of literature, but on the other hand, it is its advantage, because a word can convey plastic, sound, and dynamic. image. Using the word you can describe both a portrait and a landscape (descriptive function).

A word can convey the sound of music; it can only convey the general impression of the music.

A word in literature can also convey dynamics, recreate some kind of dynamic series. Then the word appears in a narrative function.

The word is the most important element in constructing an artistic image in literature, a complete semantic unit.

It is connected with the satisfaction of a person’s aesthetic needs, with his desire to create beauty and enjoy it. These tasks are served by art, presented in various forms.

Fiction is divided into: 1. Content: historical, detective, humorous, journalistic, satirical. 2. By age categories: for preschoolers, primary schoolchildren, students, adults. 3. By implementation in specific forms: poetry, prose, drama, criticism, journalism.

The object of fiction is the whole world.

The subject of fiction is man.

Literature and society. Citizenship, nationality of literature.

As an integral part of national culture, literature is the bearer of features that characterize a nation, an expression of general national properties.

Literature is the art of words, therefore the features of the national language in which it is written are a direct expression of its national identity.

In the early stages of the development of society, certain natural conditions give rise to common tasks in the struggle between man and nature, a commonality of labor processes and skills, customs, way of life, and worldview. Impressions from the surrounding nature influence the properties of the narrative, the features of metaphors, comparisons and other artistic means.

As a nation is formed from a people, national identity manifests itself in the characteristics of social life. The development of class society, the transition from the slave system to the feudal system and from the feudal to the bourgeois system, occurs among different peoples at different times, under different conditions. The external and internal political activities of the state develop differently, which influences the emergence of certain moral norms and the formation of ideological ideas and traditions. All this leads to the emergence of a national characteristic of the life of society. From childhood, people are brought up under the influence of a complex system of relationships and ideas of national society, and this leaves an imprint on their behavior. This is how the characters of people of different nations - national characters - are historically formed.

Literature has an important place in revealing the characteristics of national character. Fiction shows the diversity of national types, their specific class nature, and their historical development.

The characters of people in their national characteristics not only act as an object of artistic knowledge, but are also depicted from the point of view of the writer, who also carries within himself the spirit of his people, his nation.

The first profound exponent of the national Russian character in literature is Pushkin. In it, Russian nature, Russian soul, Russian language, Russian character were reflected in the same purity, in such purified beauty, in which the landscape is reflected on the convex surface of optical glass.

Truly folk literature expresses national interests most fully, and therefore it also has a pronounced national identity. It is through the works of such artists as Pushkin, Gogol, Dostoevsky, L. Tolstoy, Chekhov, Gorky, Sholokhov, Tvardovsky that our idea of ​​both the people of art and its national identity is determined.

Rhyme and its functions.

Rhyme is the repetition of more or less similar combinations of sounds that connect the endings of two or more lines or symmetrically located parts of poetic lines. In Russian classical versification, the main feature of rhyme is the coincidence of stressed vowels. Rhyme marks the end of a verse (clause) with a sound repetition, emphasizing the pause between lines, and thereby the rhythm of the verse.

Depending on the location of stress in rhyming words, rhyme can be: masculine, feminine, dactylic, hyperdactylic, exact and inaccurate.

• Masculine - rhyme with stress on the last syllable in the line.
• Feminine - with emphasis on the penultimate syllable in the line.
• Dactylic - with stress on the third syllable from the end of the line, which repeats the pattern of dactyl - -_ _ (stressed, unstressed, unstressed), which, in fact, is the name of this rhyme.
• Hyperdactylic - with stress on the fourth and subsequent syllables from the end of the line. This rhyme is very rare in practice. It appeared in works of oral folklore, where size as such is not always visible. The fourth syllable from the end of the verse is not a joke!

Main functions: verse-forming, phonic, semantic.

Classification of rhymes.

Several important bases for the classification of rhymes can be identified. Firstly, the characteristics of clauses are transferred to the rhymes: in terms of syllabic volume, rhymes can be masculine (last syllable), feminine (penultimate syllable), dactylic (third from the end), hyperdactylic (fourth from the end). In this case, rhymes ending with a vowel sound are called open (for example: spring - red), with a consonant - closed (hell - garden), with the sound "th" - iotized, or softened (spring - forest).

Secondly, rhymes vary in degree of accuracy. In poetry designed for auditory perception (and this is precisely the poetry of the 19th–20th centuries), exact rhyme presupposes a coincidence of sounds (not letters!), starting from the last stressed vowel to the end of the verse: unbearable - haymaking; cold - hammer (the consonant “d” at the end of the word is deafened); fear - horses (the letter “I” indicates the softness of the consonant “d”); glad – necessary (overstressed “a” and “o” are reduced and sound the same), etc. In poetry of the 19th century. Precise rhymes predominate. Imprecise rhymes greatly replaced accurate ones among many poets of the twentieth century, especially those writing in accented verse.

The third criterion is the richness/poverty of consonances. A rhyme is considered rich if the supporting consonant is repeated in the clauses, i.e. consonant preceding the last stressed vowel: chuzhbina - rowan; grapes - glad. The exception is the male open rhyme (mountain - hole), since “in order for the rhyme to feel sufficient, at least two sounds need to coincide.” Therefore, the rhyme: mountain - hole should be considered sufficient. In other cases, the coincidence in the lines of the supporting consonant, and especially the sounds preceding it, “increases the sonority of the rhyme, enriches it<...>feels like an “unexpected gift.”

By place in the verse:

· End

· Initial

· Internal

By arrangement of rhyme chains (types of rhyme):

· Adjacent - rhyming of adjacent verses: the first with the second, the third with the fourth (aabb) (the same letters indicate the endings of verses that rhyme with each other).

· Cross - rhyme of the first verse with the third, the second with the fourth (abab)

· Ring (girdled, enveloping) - the first verse - with the fourth, and the second - with the third. (abba)

· Finally, woven rhyme has many patterns. This is the general name for complex types of rhyming, for example: abvbv, abvvbba, etc.

Solid forms of verse.

SOLID forms are poetic forms that predetermine the volume, meter, rhyme, stanza of an entire small poem (and partly the figurative structure, composition, etc.). In European poetry from the 13th to the 15th centuries. Mostly solid forms of French and Italian origin are used (sonnet, triolet, rondo, rondel, sextina), from the 19th century. also eastern (ghazal, rubai, tank).

Terzetto - in versification, a stanza of 3 verses (lines). It can have 2 types: all 3 verses rhyme or 2 verses rhyme, the 3rd without rhyme. Did not receive distribution. In the narrow sense of the word, the three-line parts of a sonnet are called terzetto.

Quatrain is a quatrain, a separate stanza of four lines. The rhyme system in the quatrain is abab (cross rhyme), aabb (paired), abba (encircling). Quatrain is used for inscriptions, epitaphs, epigrams, sayings. Four-line stanzas of a sonnet are also called a quatrain.

A sonnet is a solid poetic form: a poem of 14 lines, divided into 2 quatrains (quatrains) and 2 tercets (terzettoes); in quatrains only 2 rhymes are repeated, in terzettos - 2 or 3.

Some “rules” for the content of a sonnet were recommended, but did not become universal: stanzas should end with periods, words should not be repeated, the last word should be “key”, 4 stanzas are related as thesis - development - antithesis - synthesis or as a plot - development - climax - denouement. The most vivid, figurative thought should be contained in the last two lines, the so-called sonnet lock.

Rondel is a solid poetic form (translated from French as a circle). Rondel appeared in the XIV-XV centuries in France. The rondel diagram can be represented as: ABba+abAB+abbaA, in which identical lines are indicated by capital letters. Less common is the double rondel of 16 verses with the rhyme ABBA+abAB+abba+ABBA.

Rondo is a solid poetic form; developed from the rondel in the 14th century by shortening the chorus to a hemistich. It flourished in the 16th-17th centuries. His scheme: aavva+avvR+aavvaR, in which the capital letter P is a non-rhyming refrain repeating the initial words of the first line.

Triolet is a solid poetic form; a poem consisting of 8 lines with two rhymes. The first, fourth and seventh lines are identical (this name comes from the triple repetition of the first verse). The second and eighth are the same. Triolet diagram: ABaAavAB, in which repeating lines are indicated in capital letters. After the second and fourth verses, there was usually a canonical pause (pointe). The verse is almost always in tetrameter - trochee or iambic.

The sextine is a solid poetic form that developed from the canzone and gained popularity thanks to Dante and Petrarch. The classical sextina consists of 6 stanzas of six verses each, usually unrhymed (in the Russian tradition, sextina is usually written in rhymed verse). The words that end the lines in the first stanza end the lines in all subsequent stanzas, with each new stanza repeating the final words of the previous stanza in the sequence: 6 - 1 - 5 - 2 - 4 - 3.

Octave - in versification, a stanza of 8 verses with a rhyme abababcc. It developed in Italian poetry of the 14th century and became a traditional stanza of the poetic epic of the Italian and Spanish Renaissance.

Terts - (Italian terzina, from terza rima - third rhyme), the form of chain stanzas: a series of tercets connected by a rhyme scheme aba, bcb, cdc, ded... yzy z. Thus, terzas provide a continuous rhyme chain of arbitrary length, convenient for works of large forms.

Haiku (hoku) is a three-line (three-line) lyric poem, as a rule, which is the national Japanese form. Haiku usually depicts nature and man in their eternal inseparability. Each Hokku has a certain measure of verses - the first and third verses have five syllables, the second verse has seven, and a total of 17 syllables in a Hokku.

Rubai - (Arabic, lit. quadruple), in the poetry of the peoples of the East, an aphoristic quatrain with the rhyme aaba, aaaa.

Genera, types, genres.

Genus of literature are large associations of verbal and artistic works based on the type of relationship of the speaker (the “speaker”) to the artistic whole. There are three types: drama, epic, lyric.

DRAMA is one of the four types of literature. In the narrow sense of the word - a genre of work depicting a conflict between characters, in a broad sense - all works without author's speech. Types (genres) of dramatic works: tragedy, drama, comedy, vaudeville.

LYRICS is one of the four types of literature that reflects life through a person’s personal experiences, feelings and thoughts. Types of lyrics: song, elegy, ode, thought, epistle, madrigal, stanzas, eclogue, epigram, epitaph.

LYROEPIC is one of the four types of literature, in the works of which the reader observes and evaluates the artistic world from the outside as a plot narrative, but at the same time the events and characters receive a certain emotional assessment from the narrator.

EPOS is one of the four types of literature, reflecting life through a story about a person and the events that happen to him. The main types (genres) of epic literature: epic, novel, story, short story, short story, artistic essay.

TYPES (GENRES) OF EPIC WORKS:

(epic, novel, story, story, fairy tale, fable, legend.)

EPIC is a major work of fiction telling about significant historical events. In ancient times - a narrative poem of heroic content.

A NOVEL is a large narrative work of art with a complex plot, in the center of which is the fate of an individual.

A STORY is a work of art that occupies a middle position between a novel and a short story in terms of volume and complexity of the plot. In ancient times, any narrative work was called a story.

A STORY is a small work of fiction based on an episode, an incident from the life of the hero.

TALE - a work about fictional events and characters, usually involving magical, fantastic forces.

A FABLE (from “bayat” - to tell) is a narrative work in poetic form, small in size, of a moralizing or satirical nature.

TYPES (GENRES) OF LYRIC WORKS:

(ode, hymn, song, elegy, sonnet, epigram, message)

ODA (from Greek “song”) is a choral, solemn song.

HYMN (from Greek “praise”) is a solemn song based on programmatic verses.

EPIGRAM (from Greek “inscription”) is a short satirical poem of a mocking nature that arose in the 3rd century BC. e.

ELEGY is a genre of lyrics dedicated to sad thoughts or a lyric poem imbued with sadness.

MESSAGE - a poetic letter, an appeal to a specific person, a request, a wish, a confession.

SONNET (from the Provencal sonette - “song”) is a poem of 14 lines, which has a certain rhyme system and strict stylistic laws.

Epic as a literary genre.

Epic - (gr. story, narration) - one of the three types of literature, a narrative kind. Genre varieties of epic: fairy tale, short story, tale, short story, essay, novel, etc. Epic as a type of literature reproduces objective reality external to the author in its objective essence. The epic uses a variety of methods of presentation - narration, description, dialogue, monologue, author's digressions. Epic genres are enriched and improved. Techniques of composition, means of depicting a person, the circumstances of his life, everyday life are being developed, and a multifaceted image of the picture of the world and society is being achieved.

A literary text is like a certain fusion of narrative speech and statements of characters.

Everything told is given only through narration. Epic as a literary genre very freely masters reality in time and space. He knows no limitations in the volume of text. Epic novels also belong to the epic.

Epic works include Onorempe de Balzac’s novel “Père Goriot,” Stendhal’s novel “The Red and the Black,” and Leo Tolstoy’s epic novel “War and Peace.”

Epic - the original form is a heroic poem. Occurs when patriarchal society breaks down. In Russian literature there are epics that form cycles.

The epic reproduces life not as personal, but as an objective reality - from the outside. The purpose of any epic is to tell about an event. The dominant content is the event. Earlier - wars, later - a private event, facts of inner life. The cognitive orientation of the epic is an objective beginning. A story about events without evaluation. “The Tale of Bygone Years” - all the bloody events are told dispassionately and matter-of-factly. Epic distance.

The subject of the image in the epic is the world as an objective reality. Human life in its organic connection with the world, fate is also the subject of the image. Bunin's story. Sholokhov "The Fate of Man". Understanding fate through the prism of culture is important.

Forms of verbal expression in the epic (type of speech organization) - narrative. Functions of the word - the word depicts the objective world. Narration is a way/type of speaking. Description in the epic. Speech of heroes, characters. Narration is the speech of the author’s image. The speech of the characters is polylogues, monologues, dialogues. In romantic works, the confession of the main character is required. Internal monologues are a direct inclusion of the characters’ words. Indirect forms - indirect speech, improper direct speech. It is not isolated from the author’s speech.

The important role of the system of reflections in the novel. The hero may be endowed with a quality that the author does not like. Example: Silvio. Pushkin's favorite heroes are verbose. Very often it is unclear to us how the author relates to the hero.

A) Narrator

1) The character has his own destiny. "The Captain's Daughter", "Belkin's Tales".

2) Conventional narrator, faceless in speech terms. Very often – us. Speech mask.

3) Tale. Speech color - says society.

1) Objective. “History of the Russian State” Karamzin, “War and Peace”.

2) Subjective - orientation towards the reader, appeal.

A tale is a special speech manner that reproduces a person’s speech, as if not literary processed. Leskov "Lefty"

Descriptions and lists. Important for the epic. Epic is perhaps the most popular genus.

Novel and epic.

The novel is a large form of the epic genre of literature. The most common features: the depiction of a person in complex forms of the life process, a multi-linear plot covering the fate of a number of characters, polyphony, a predominantly prose genre. Initially, in medieval Europe, the term meant narrative literature in Romance languages ​​(Latin); in retrospect, some works of ancient literature were also called this way.

In the history of the European novel, one can distinguish a number of historically established types that successively replaced each other.

NOVEL (French roman), a literary genre, an epic work of large form, in which the narrative is focused on the fate of an individual in his relation to the world around him, on the formation and development of his character and self-awareness. The novel is an epic of modern times; unlike the folk epic, where the individual and the folk soul are inseparable, in the novel the life of the individual and social life appear as relatively independent; but the “private” inner life of the individual is revealed in him “epicly”, that is, with the revelation of its generally significant and social meaning. A typical novel situation is a clash in the hero of the moral and human (personal) with natural and social necessity. Since the novel develops in modern times, where the nature of the relationship between man and society is constantly changing, its form is essentially “open”: the main situation is each time filled with specific historical content and is embodied in various genre modifications. Historically, the picaresque novel is considered the first form. In the 18th century two main varieties are developing: the social novel (G. Fielding, T. Smollett) and the psychological novel (S. Richardson, J. J. Rousseau, L. Stern, I. V. Goethe). Romantics create a historical novel (W. Scott). In the 1830s. The classical era of the socio-psychological novel of critical realism of the 19th century begins. (Stendhal, O. Balzac, C. Dickens, W. Thackeray, G. Flaubert, L. N. Tolstoy, F. M. Dostoevsky).

Epic is one of the oldest epic genres. An epic appeared in Greece. From Greek, epic is translated as creating, or created. The Greek epics, like most Greek literature, were based on ancient Greek mythology. The most outstanding epics from Greek literature can be called Homer's Odyssey and Hellas. The events of both of these works are so closely intertwined with myths (and many of the events occurring in them are simply continuations) that the plot is complex and confusing. In general, thanks to the themes of the Greek epics, in literary criticism it is generally accepted that the theme of the epic should be:

The basis is the celebration of a certain event

Military and conquest campaigns

The interests of the people, the nation (meaning that the epic cannot but capture problems and issues that are not of interest to the bulk of the population).

Partly, this is so due to the fact that, despite the presence of slavery in Greece, this social system was overcome by the Greeks and, through common efforts, they came to feudal democracy. The main meaning of the Greek epics was that the opinion of the people (the majority) always wins over the opinion of the minority. Thus, judge for yourself that what was not present in Greek prose was individualism. Maybe you remember the lively dialogue between Tristan and Odysseus himself? Tristan seems to be right, but he is in the minority, and therefore Odysseus wins.

Traditionally, epics were written in verse, however, modern stylizations of epics can be found more and more often in prose. In the era of classicism, the epic is regaining popularity, take, for example, Virgil and his Aeneid. For the Slavs, this work is especially noteworthy, since it was on their lands that many parodies of this classic epic circulated.

Lyric epic works.

Lyric-epic genre of literature is a work of art in poetic form that combines epic and lyrical images of life.

In works of the lyric-epic kind, life is reflected, on the one hand, in a poetic narration about the actions and experiences of a person or people, about the events in which they take part; on the other hand, in the experiences of the poet-narrator caused by pictures of life, the behavior of the characters in his poetic story. These experiences of the poet-narrator are usually expressed in works of the lyric-epic kind in so-called lyrical digressions, sometimes not directly related to the course of events in the work; lyrical digressions are one of the types of author’s speech.

Such, for example, are the famous lyrical digressions in A. S. Pushkin’s poetic novel “Eugene Onegin”, in his poems; These are the chapters “From the author”, “About myself” and lyrical digressions in other chapters of the poem in A. T. Tvardovsky’s poem “Vasily Terkin”.

LYROEPIC TYPES (GENRES): poem, ballad.

POEM (from Greek poieio - “I do, I create”) is a large poetic work with a narrative or lyrical plot, usually on a historical or legendary theme.

BALLAD - a plot song with dramatic content, a story in verse.

TYPES (GENRES) OF DRAMATIC WORKS:

tragedy, comedy, drama (in the narrow sense).

TRAGEDY (from Greek tragos ode - “goat song”) is a dramatic work depicting an intense struggle of strong characters and passions, which usually ends with the death of the hero.

COMEDY (from Greek komos ode - “funny song”) is a dramatic work with a cheerful, funny plot, usually ridiculing social or everyday vices.

DRAMA (“action”) is a literary work in the form of dialogue with a serious plot, depicting an individual in his dramatic relationship with society. Varieties of drama can be tragicomedy or melodrama.

VAUDEVILLE is a genre type of comedy; it is a light comedy with singing verses and dancing.

Literary criticism.

Literary criticism - (Judgment, the art of understanding, judging) - one of the components of literary criticism. Closely connected with the history and theory of literature, which are primarily concerned with determining the nature of verbal creativity, establishing the basic laws of the aesthetic development of reality, and analyzing the classical literary heritage. Literary criticism mainly evaluates contemporary literary development and interprets works of art from the point of view of modernity.

In determining the ideological and aesthetic quality of current book and magazine literary and artistic production, literary criticism proceeds, first of all, from the tasks facing society at this stage of its development.

A work of art that does not expand the reader’s spiritual horizons, does not give a person aesthetic pleasure, that is, is emotionally poor and therefore does not affect the aesthetic sense - such a work cannot be recognized as truly artistic.

The history of literary criticism has its roots in the distant past: critical judgments about literature were born simultaneously with the appearance of works of art. The first readers, from among those who thought, were wise with life experience and endowed with an aesthetic sense, were, in essence, the first literary critics. Already in the era of antiquity, literary criticism was formed as a relatively independent branch of creativity.

Criticism shows the writer the merits and shortcomings of his work, helping to expand his ideological horizons and improve his skill; By addressing the reader, the critic not only explains the work to him, but also involves him in a living process of joint comprehension of what he has read at a new level of understanding. An important advantage of criticism is the ability to consider a work as an artistic whole and recognize it in the general process of literary development.

In modern literary criticism, various genres are cultivated - article, review, review, essay, literary portrait, polemical remark, bibliographic note. But in any case, a critic, in a certain sense, must combine a politician, a sociologist, a psychologist with a literary historian and an aesthetician. At the same time, the critic needs a talent akin to the talent of both the artist and the scientist, although not at all identical with them.

The structure of literary criticism. The main branches of the science of literature.

Literary theory studies the general laws of the literary process, literature as a form

Teacher: Irina Sergeevna Yukhnova.

Literary criticism as a science.

Literary criticism is a science that studies the specifics of literature, the development of verbal artistic creativity, artistic literary works in the unity of its content and form, and the laws of the literary process. This is one of the branches of philology. The profession of philologist appeared to process ancient texts - to decipher them and adapt them for reading. During the Renaissance, a huge interest in antiquity appeared - philologists turned to the texts of the Renaissance for help. An example when philology is needed: to decipher historical realities and names in “Eugene Onegin”. The need for commentary, for example, on military literature. Literary scholars help you understand what the text is about and why it was created.

A text becomes a work when it has some task.

Literature

Recipient (reader)

Now literature is considered as the above system, where everything is interconnected. We are interested in someone else's assessment. We often start reading a text already knowing something about it. The author always writes for the reader. There are different types of readers, as Chernyshevsky talks about. An example is Mayakovsky, who addressed his descendants through his contemporaries. The literary critic also turns to the personality of the author, his opinion, and biography. He is also interested in the reader's opinion.

There are many disciplines in literary studies. They are main and auxiliary. Basics: literary theory, literary history and literary criticism. Literary criticism is addressed to the modern literary process. She responds to new works. The main task of criticism is to evaluate the work. It arises when the connection between the artist and society is clearly visible. Critics are often called skilled readers. Russian criticism begins with Belinsky. Criticism manipulates the reader's opinion. She is often biased. Example: reactions to “Belkin’s Stories” and the persecution of Boris Pasternak, when those who did not even read him spoke badly about him.

Theory and history are not addressed to topicality. Neither the historian nor the theorist cares about topicality; he studies the work against the background of the entire literary process. Very often literary processes manifest themselves more clearly in secondary literature. The theorist identifies general patterns, constants, and the core. He doesn't care about the details. A historian, on the contrary, studies particulars and specifics.

“Theory presupposes, and art destroys these assumptions, of course, most often unconsciously” - Jerzy Farino.

Theory shapes the model. But the model is bad in practice. The best work almost always breaks these patterns. Example: The Inspector General, Woe from Wit. They don't fit the pattern, so we look at them from the point of view of breaking the model.

There is a different quality of literary criticism. Sometimes the text of a scientific research is similar to a work of art.

Science must have a subject of research, research methods and terminology.

Conventional images include: hyperbolic idealization, grotesque, allegory and symbol. Hyperbolic idealization is found in epics, where the real and the fantastic are combined, there are no realistic motivations for actions. The form of the grotesque: a shift in proportions - Nevsky Prospekt, a violation of scale, the inanimate displaces the living. The grotesque is often used for satire or to indicate tragic principles. Grotesque is a symbol of disharmony. The grotesque style is characterized by an abundance of alogisms and a combination of different voices. Allegory and symbol - two levels: depicted and implied. The allegory is unambiguous - there are instructions and decoding. The symbol is multi-valued, inexhaustible. In a symbol, both what is depicted and what is implied are equally important. There are no indications in the symbol.

- Small forms of imagery.

From the point of view of many researchers, only what is created with the help of words is figurative. The possibilities and features of the word are a topic of discussion, and this is how futurism arises. A word in a work of art behaves differently than in ordinary speech - the word begins to realize an aesthetic function in addition to the nominative (nominative) and communicative. The purpose of ordinary speech is communication, discourse, transmission of information. The aesthetic function is different, it does not just convey information, but creates a certain mood, conveys spiritual information, a certain super-meaning, an idea. The word itself manifests itself differently. Context, compatibility, rhythmic beginning (especially in poetry) are important. Bunin: “Punctuation marks are musical notes.” Rhythm and meaning are combined. A word in a work of art does not have a specific meaning as in everyday speech. Example: crystal vase and crystal time by Tyutchev. The word does not appear in its meaning. The same flow of associations with the author. Crystal time - description of sounds in autumn. A word in an artistic context gives rise to individual associations. If the author’s and yours coincide, everything is remembered, if not, no. Any artistic trope is a deviation from the rules. Y. Tynyanov “The meaning of the poetic word.” “The word is a chameleon, in which each time not only different shades appear, but also different colors.” Emotional coloring of the word. A word is an abstraction; the complex of meanings is individual.

All methods of changing the basic meaning of a word are tropes. The word has not only a direct but also a figurative meaning. The definition usually given in textbooks is not entirely complete. Tomashevsky "Poetics of Speech". Example: the title of Shmelev’s story “The Man from the Restaurant.” First, a person means a waiter, and the word is used as the client usually calls him. Then the action develops, the hero reflects that the elite of society is vicious. He has his own temptations: the money he returns. The waiter cannot live with sin; the main word becomes “man” as the crown of nature, a spiritual being. Pushkin’s metaphor “The East is burning with a new dawn” - both the beginning of a new day and the emergence of a new powerful state in the east.

Types of tropes: comparison, metaphor, personification, metonymy, synecdoche, epithet, oxymoron, hyperbole, litotes, periphrase, irony, euphemism (characteristic of sentimentalism).

Comparison is a figurative phrase or an expanded structure that involves a comparison of two phenomena, concepts or states that have a common feature. Always two-term, there are verbal indicators: as if, as if, exactly, special constructions, comparison through negation (“It’s not the wind that rages over the forest, it’s not the streams that ran from the mountains...” Nekrasov), instrumental case. The comparison can be simple and extensive. Simple: “looks like a clear evening” - a transitional state, a spiritual crossroads, is recorded. Poem "Demon". The comparison itself charted the fate. An extended comparison is the poem by N. Zabolotsky “On the beauty of human faces.” First, comparisons with buildings, houses, and then a violation of logic - from the material to the spiritual. True beauty is pure spirit, striving for peace. Zabolotsky: beauty is in diversity. Comparison helps to understand the writer's thought process.

Metaphor is a hidden comparison; the process of comparison occurs, but it is not shown. Example: “The east is burning...” There must be a similarity. “A bee from a wax cell, flies for a field tribute” - there are no designated words anywhere. A type of metaphor is personification (anthropomorphism) - the transfer of the properties of a living organism to a nonliving one. There are frozen personifications. Sometimes an abstract concept is expressed by a concrete phrase. Such personifications easily become symbols - the sound of an ax in Chekhov. A metaphor can be expressed by two nouns, a verb, an adjective (then it is a metaphorical epithet).

An oxymoron is a combination of the incongruous (a living corpse) and sometimes names (Lev Myshkin). Apollo Grigoriev is drawn to an oxymoron, since he himself is contradictory and rushes from side to side. Oxymoron – a consequence, a cause in worldview.

Metonymy is the transfer of meaning by contiguity (drink a cup of tea). Actively manifested in the literature of the first third of the 19th century. Synecdoche - transfer from plural to singular.

Epithet is an artistic definition. Logical definition - how a product differs from a number of similar ones. Artistic – emphasizes what is originally in the subject (constant epithets). The epithet captures the constant (the clever Odysseus). Homeric epithet is a difficult word. Lyrically, he was considered heavy. Archaic. The exception is Tyutchev (loudly boiling, all-consuming - conceptuality). Tyutchev's epithet is individualized. The structure of the epithet depends on the worldview: the charmless Circe, the grave Aphrodite in Baratynsky. Paradoxical epithets are eschatological motives. When a person falls away, he loses his main properties. Antiquity is the beginning of discord, when reason conquers spirit. Zhukovsky depicts humility before fate, additional meanings of the word. The ballad “Fisherman” is analyzed by Orest Somov line by line. The artistic effect is born because there is a violation of the norm, but within the framework of meaning. Nothing in fiction is read literally. The word initially has the ability to create words.

- Form and content of a literary work.

We constantly encounter parallel concepts. The word "text" is most often used in linguistics. Post-modernists create texts, not works. “Textus” translated from Latin means plexus, structure, structure, fabric, connection, coherent presentation. Text is a system of signs interconnected. The text exists unchanged, on a specific material medium. There is a science called “textual criticism,” which studies the original texts, the originals. The texts of different centuries are different. But the text is still moving. The text is multidimensional, that is, it can be read differently by different people. The openness of the text to the outside world turns the text into a work of art, and not a simple system of signs.

“The work is that small world in which the artistic universe of the writer is viewed from the perspective of the specific spiritual state possessing the artist at this moment, at this stage of his destiny, in this phase of his brush movements…<…>... A literary work in its classical version is a living “organism” in which a spiritual “heart” beats, as it were - formed and at the same time formative the artist’s thought, which has absorbed all the forces of his soul.” (“Verbal image and literary work”).

The text exists on its own, it is closed. In a work, everything is the other way around - what matters is what the author responds to, what excites him. A writer changes throughout his life. Example: Vasily Aksenov in the program “Times”. "Gavriliad" by Pushkin. Works are momentous, for example, Boccaccio disowned the Decameron. The dialectical development of thought is reflected in the text of the work. Thought shapes text. Example: Tolstoy with the main idea. He turns to history. The heroines: Princess Marya and Natasha Rotsova, completely different, are tested by Anatoly Kuragin. Families turn out to be cramped for both heroines, who, it would seem, do not even think about freedom. But they don’t cross the line. This is formed as a thought - the backwardness of a patriarchal society. The work not only changes, but is also perceived differently by the reader. Re-reading is very important - different sides of the work are revealed. “Homer gives to everyone: to the young man, to the husband, and to the old man, as much as anyone can take.” The text and the work are fundamentally different.

Form is a style, a genre (novel, drama, etc.), composition, artistic speech, rhythm.

Plot refers to both form and content. The plot combines these two concepts. Absolute unity. Reception for the sake of reception is never used. But this unity is not the same. At the end of the 19th century there was a crisis of content, they were looking for new forms. Post-modernists create a text that looks like a labyrinth. The text changes its linear structure. Until this time, we were looking for new content. But the new content entailed a new form. The entire inexhaustibility of life and the subconscious is reflected in the work.

Unity of form and content. There is secondary literature. She is the soil. Example: Pushkin's childhood. Fiction replicates the thoughts of geniuses for the masses. Example: Bestuzhev-Marlinsky. Very often discoveries are made by secondary literature. Mass literature is not literature, but the word in the commercial service.

- Theme, problem, idea of ​​the work.

Different authors talk differently about defining a theme. Translation from Greek “that which is the basis.” Yesin: Theme is “the object of artistic reflection, those life characters and situations that seem to pass from reality into a work of art and form the objective side of its content.” : “What is described in the text, what the narrative is about, reasoning unfolds, dialogue is conducted...” The theme is the organizing beginning of the work. Tomashevsky: “Unity of meanings of individual elements of the work. It brings together the components of an artistic design.” Zhiolkovsky and Shcheglov: “A certain attitude to which all elements of the work are subordinated.” The plot may be the same, but the theme is different. In popular literature, the plot weighs heavily on the theme. Life very often becomes the object of depiction. The topic is often determined by the author’s literary preferences and his belonging to a certain group. The concept of internal theme is themes that are cross-cutting for the writer; this is the thematic unity that unites all his works.

A problem is the highlighting of an aspect, an emphasis on it, which is resolved as the work unfolds. The problem comes when there is a choice.

- The plot of a literary work. Plot and plot.

Plot comes from the word “subject”. Originates in France. Often the plot is an allusion. The word "plot" means "a story borrowed from the past, subject to the playwright's treatment." Fabula is a legend, myth, fable, an older concept.

Discrepancy between plot and plot. Example: “Boris Godunov” by Pushkin, Karamzin and historians.

Pospelov: “The plot is subsequence events and actions, contained in the work event chain. Fabula is a plot diagram, a straightened plot.”

Veselovsky: “The plot is an artistically constructed distribution of events.” “Fabula is a set of events in their mutual internal connection.”

Tomashevsky: “The plot is the action of the work in its entirety, the real chain of depicted movements. A simple unit of plot is any movement. Fable is a scheme of action, a system of main events that can be retold. The simplest unit of plot is a motive or event, and the main elements are the plot, the development of action, the climax, and the denouement.”

Three-volume book on literary theory: “Plot is a system of settings with the help of which an action should be carried out. Canvas, skeleton. The plot is the very process of action, the pattern, the fabric that dresses the bones of the skeleton.”

Plot is a system of events in their artistic logic. The plot is in the logic of life. The plot is the dynamic side of the work. Elements in dynamics.

Types of plots:

Beletsky – autobiographical plot (Tolstoy “Childhood. Adolescence. Youth”). Mid 19th century. Extrapersonal subjects are selected from a sphere that lies outside the author’s personal experience. Other people's plots are a conscious orientation towards another work. Postmodernism.

Single-line (concentric) plots are centripetal. Chronicle stories. Multilinear plots (centrifugal) - several plotlines with independent development.

Plot elements: exposition is the initial part of the work, performing an informative function. The conflict has not yet been planned, preparations for it. The plot is the moment when a conflict arises or is discovered. The development of the action is a series of episodes in which the characters strive to resolve the conflict, but it becomes increasingly tense. Climax is the moment of highest tension, when the conflict is maximally developed and it becomes clear that contradictions cannot exist in their previous form and require immediate resolution. Resolution - when the conflict is resolved: 1) the conflict is resolved; 2) the conflict is fundamentally unresolvable. Extra-plot elements - prologue, epilogue, digressions.

An event is a fact of life. The 20th century is the subject of depiction of human consciousness; the flow of words itself can become a plot.

The lyrical plot is different stages in the development of lyrical experience.

- Composition of a literary work.

This is the relationship and arrangement of parts, elements within a work. Architectonics.

Composition of plot, scenes, episodes.

The relationship between plot elements: retardation, inversion, etc.

Architectonics.

The relationship between the whole and the parts.

Composition of figurative structure.

The relationship between structure and image construction.

Composition of verse and speech levels.

Changing the methods of artistic representation.

Gusev “The Art of Prose”: composition in reverse time (“Easy Breathing” by Bunin). Composition of direct time. Retrospective (“Ulysses” by Joyce, “The Master and Margarita” by Bulgakov) – different eras become independent objects of depiction. Intensification of phenomena - often in lyrical texts - Lermontov.

Compositional contrast (“War and Peace”) is an antithesis. Plot-compositional inversion (“Onegin”, “Dead Souls”). The principle of parallelism is in the lyrics, “The Thunderstorm” by Ostrovsky. Composition ring – “Inspector”.

Composition of figurative structure. The character is in interaction. There are main, secondary, off-stage, real and historical characters. Catherine - Pugachev are bound together through an act of mercy.

- Subjective organization of the text.

This is the correlation between speakers of speech and their consciousnesses. By the way they are correlated, we can say that the text, as a work, is devoid of a monolithic voice; it contains heteroglossia or polyphony. "Fathers and Sons". At the end, Arkady goes to Maryino and admires what he sees, but what he sees can hardly cause admiration, since everything is gloomy and bad: there is no grass yet, “the specter of hunger loomed everywhere.” Here we use the point of view of Nikolai Petrovich, Arkady and Bazarov, but the author chose the point of view of Arkady, who sees this world after a long absence. Having left him once, he is filled with nihilistic ideas and feels joy from meeting him. But there is no nihilism, Arkady plays at it, he will never be able to perceive nature like Bazarov.

“War and Peace” is built on a change in subjective perception. For example, Natasha in Otradnoye enjoys spring. This night is not shown from the point of view of Sonya or some abstract author. When Tolstoy describes the Battle of Borodino, he shows it through the eyes of a detached man - Pierre, who sees a series of senseless murders.

In the 20th century, there was a tendency to depict events from multiple points of view. This was introduced into literature by Faulkner. When he was working on his novel The Sound and the Fury, he sought dissonance. I began to tell the story through the eyes of a defective child who knows what happened, but does not know why. Then he saw that the story was not completely told, he told it through the eyes of one brother, then another. I saw that there were still gaps. And he told the story himself. It turned out to be an intersection of different versions of the same event. There are different angles of vision. The text is recreated through the perception of various artistic perceptions.

Author. Who is he in the text? There is the concept of a biographical author. These are real Lenin, Pushkin. He is related to the literary text as the creator. There is an author as a subject of artistic activity, the creative process. Example: what and how Pushkin writes. There is an author in his artistic embodiment (the image of the author). This is a kind of speech carrier inside a work of art. There is a narrator. He can be close to the author, or he can be distanced from him.

"War and Peace" close. “The Captain's Daughter” - Grinev writes memoirs, he and the narrator, there is the voice of the publisher to whom the recordings came. It is close to the author, but is an artistic image.

The narrator is an indirect form of the author’s presence, and performs a mediating function between the fictional world and the recipient. According to Tamarchenko, its specificity is: 1) a comprehensive outlook (the narrator knows the ending and therefore places emphasis, can get ahead of himself, advise on what to focus on). This horizon does not exist above the events depicted; the narrator’s knowledge and he himself exist within the boundaries of the depicted world; 2) the speech is addressed to the reader, he always takes into account how he will be perceived. “Poor Liza” - the address to readers sounds: “honorable reader.” “Eugene Onegin” - different types of readers arise - the discerning reader, the censor, the lady. There may not be such requests.

- Spatio-temporal organization of a literary work.

Bakhtin: the term “chronotope”. For him these are two indivisible things, synthesis, unity. Chronotope is a significant interrelation of temporal and spatial relations, artistically mastered in literature or in a literary work. Pushkin's poem, with which Pushkin's romanticism begins. Most often, deployment in space (the subject plan “a ship rushes across the sea” by Pushkin) and simultaneity in time. In Pushkin, the hero returns to the past, relives it and turns to new horizons.

- Verse and prose. System of Russian versification.

Poetry or prose. Poems are appropriate in some cases. Yuri Lotman. Verse and poetry are different things. Previously, “poetry” meant “oral creativity.” Now - only what is written in verse and in small form. The analogue is lyrics, but this is a generic classification; lyrics are not necessarily poetry. Prose is a type of artistic speech when there is no system of compositional repetitions (a complete system). Example: completion of Nabokov's novel. The term “prose” goes back to the phrase prio + versus. The verse has an orderliness. Parallel speech sequences appear in it, which precisely give the phrase noticeable harmony.

There are six types of repetitions: 1) sound repetitions at the beginning, in the middle, at the end (Mayakovsky “How to Make Poems”) - rhymes; 2) pause division of phrases based on intonation expressiveness. Semantic pauses are very important - the monotonous rhythm in a given place is often broken; 3) an equal number of syllables in a verse; 4) a metrical measure repeated in verse periodically or non-periodically; 5) anacrusis at the beginning of verse lines - this is a group of unstressed syllables before the first strong one at the beginning of the line; 6) equivalent clauses at the end of the line. Poetic forms by themselves do not have meaning. Nekrasov reinterprets Lermontov’s “Both boring and sad...”, “Lullaby” - the rhythmic meaninglessness is shown. Pushkin’s attempt is to put new content into old genres. Pasternak's Hamlet.

Until the 18th century there was no division into poetry and prose. Syllabic verse is verse with an ordered number of syllables. In our country they did not take root because of the floating accent.

Syllabic-tonic system - V, K, Trediakovsky writes a treatise in 1735. In 1739 M, V, Lomonosov “Letter on the rules of Russian poetry”, wrote “Ode on the Capture of Khotin”. Enters dimensions. Example: translation from Anacreon by Cantemir and Pushkin.

Meter is a regularity of rhythm that has sufficient definiteness to cause, firstly, the expectation of its confirmation in the following verses, and secondly, a specific experience of interruption when it is violated. Kholmogorov. Semantic deviations are considered as meaning-forming. Different forms of verse appear, where the main thing is the tonic. But the tonic does not replace the syllabic tonic. For the tonic, the number of stressed syllables in a line is important. Stressed syllables are ikts. A. Bely “Rhythm is a certain unity in the sum of deviations from a given metric system.” Meter is the ideal model, rhythm is its embodiment.

- Division of literature into genera and types. The concept of literary genre.

Epic, lyric and drama. Socrates (as presented by Plato): the poet can speak on his own behalf, mainly dithyramb. A poet can construct a work in the form of an exchange of remarks, which may include the words of the author. The poet can combine his words with the words of others, which belong to other characters. "Poetics" of Aristotle. Art is an imitation of nature. “You can imitate the same thing in different ways.” 1) Talking about an event as something separate from oneself, as Homer does. 2) Tell the story in such a way that the imitator remains himself, but changes his face - lyricism. 3) The writer presents all characters as acting and active.

Science ontology. In different eras a person needs different literary genres. Freedom and necessity. Psychology is important. Expressiveness, appeal.

Drama is something that develops before our eyes. Lyrics are an amazing fusion of time. At one time they wanted to declare the novel a separate genus. Many transitional phenomena.

Intergeneric and non-generic works. Intergeneric – characteristics of different genera. "Eugene Onegin", "Dead Souls", "Faust". Extrageneric: Essays, Essays, and Stream-of-Consciousness Literature. Dialectics of the soul. "Anna Karenina". Joyce "Ulysses". Types are not exactly genres. A species is a specific historical embodiment of a genus. A genre is a group of works that have a complex of stable characteristics. Important: subject matter, theme is a genre object. Artistic time is definite. Special composition. Speaker of speech. Elegy – different understandings. Tale.

Some genres are universal: comedy, tragedy, ode. And some are local - petitions, circulation. There are dead genres - the sonnet. Canonical and non-canonical – established and unformed.

LITERARY GENERA

- Epic as a type of literature.

“Epic” translated from Greek means “word, speech, story.” Epic is one of the most ancient genres, associated with the formation of national identity. There were many hoaxes in the 17th and 18th centuries. Successful - songs of Ossian, Scotland, an attempt to raise national consciousness. They influenced the development of European literature.

Epic - the original form is a heroic poem. Occurs when patriarchal society breaks down. In Russian literature there are epics that form cycles.

The epic reproduces life not as personal, but as an objective reality - from the outside. The purpose of any epic is to tell about an event. The dominant content is the event. Earlier - wars, later - a private event, facts of inner life. The cognitive orientation of the epic is an objective beginning. A story about events without evaluation. “The Tale of Bygone Years” - all the bloody events are told dispassionately and matter-of-factly. Epic distance.

The subject of the image in the epic is the world as an objective reality. Human life in its organic connection with the world, fate is also the subject of the image. Bunin's story. Sholokhov "The Fate of Man". Understanding fate through the prism of culture is important.

Forms of verbal expression in the epic (type of speech organization) - narrative. Functions of the word - the word depicts the objective world. Narration is a way/type of speaking. Description in the epic. Speech of heroes, characters. Narration is the speech of the author’s image. The speech of the characters is polylogues, monologues, dialogues. In romantic works, the confession of the main character is required. Internal monologues are a direct inclusion of the characters’ words. Indirect forms - indirect speech, improper direct speech. It is not isolated from the author’s speech.

The important role of the system of reflections in the novel. The hero may be endowed with a quality that the author does not like. Example: Silvio. Pushkin's favorite heroes are verbose. Very often it is unclear to us how the author relates to the hero.

A) Narrator

1) The character has his own destiny. "The Captain's Daughter", "Belkin's Tales".

2) Conventional narrator, faceless in speech terms. Very often – us. Speech mask.

3) Tale. Speech color - says society.

1) Objective. “History of the Russian State” Karamzin, “War and Peace”.

2) Subjective - orientation towards the reader, appeal.

A tale is a special speech manner that reproduces a person’s speech, as if not literary processed. Leskov "Lefty"

Descriptions and lists. Important for the epic. Epic is perhaps the most popular genus.

- Drama as a type of literature.

Merging of subjective and objective. The event is shown as being formed, not ready. In the epic the author gives a lot of comments and details, but in the drama this is not the case. Subjective – what is happening is given through the perception of the actors. Many eras in the development of theater tried to destroy the barrier between the audience and the actors. The idea of ​​“theater within a theater” - romanticism, developed rapidly at the beginning of the 20th century. “Princess Turandot” - the actors ask the audience. Gogol has the same principle in The Inspector General. The desire to destroy convention. Drama comes out of rituals. The dramatic text is largely devoid of authorial presence. The speech activity of the characters is shown, the monologue and dialogue are relevant. Author's presence: title (Ostrovsky loved proverbs), epigraph (Gogol's "The Inspector General" - the theme of the mirror), genre (Chekhov's comedies - a peculiarity of perception), list of characters (often determined by traditions), speaking names, comments, stage directions - description of the scene. Characteristics of the characters’ speech, actions, internal action in the drama. “Boris Godunov” by Pushkin, “Masquerade” by Lermontov. Chekhov is different. Early theater - exercises in monologues. Dialogue was more often an auxiliary means of communication between monologues. This changes Griboyedov - a dialogue of the deaf, a comic dialogue. Chekhov too. Gorky: “But the threads are rotten.”

Thomas Mann: “Drama is the art of silhouette.” Herzen: “The stage is always contemporary with the viewer. She always reflects the side of life that the partner wants to see.” Echoes of modernity are always visible.

- Lyrics as a type of literature.

Cognitive orientation of the lyrics. The subject of the image in the lyrics is the inner world of man. Content dominant: experiences (of some feeling, thought, mood). The form of verbal expression (type of speech organization) is a monologue. Functions of a word - expresses the state of the speaker. The emotional sphere of human emotions, the inner world, the path of influence - suggestibility (suggestion). In epic and drama they try to identify general patterns, in lyric poetry - individual states of human consciousness.

Emotionally colored thinking - sometimes external emotionlessness. This is a lyrical meditation. Lermontov “Both boring and sad...” Strong-willed impulses, oratorical intonations in the lyrics of the Decembrists. Impressions can also be the subject of a lyrical text.

Irrational feelings and aspirations. Uniqueness, although there is an element of generalization for conveying one’s thoughts to contemporaries. Consonance with the era, age, emotional experiences. As a form of literature, lyrics are always important.

The end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th century is very important - the period of destruction of the idea of ​​lyricism, the destruction of genre thinking in lyrics, new thinking - stylistic. Associated with Goethe. In the 70s of the 18th century, Goethe created a new feature of lyrical work, which broke with tradition. There was a strict hierarchy of genres: it was clearly defined which forms of lyrics were used when. The poetic forms are very branched.

Ode is an idealization of a superior person, therefore a certain form. Decimal, ceremonial introduction, descriptive part, part about the prosperity of the country.

Goethe destroys the connection between theme and form. His poems begin as a cast of a momentary experience—an image. Natural phenomena could also be included, but not conditional ones. The process of style individualization. In the 19th century it is often impossible to define a genre.

Each poet is associated with a certain range of emotions, a special attitude towards the world. Zhukovsky, Mayakovsky, Gumilev.

Experiences are at the core. The lyrical plot is the development and shades of the author's emotions. It is often said that lyrics have no plot, but this is not true.

The poet defends the right to write in a light, small genre. Small genres have been elevated to absolute status. Imitating other genres, playing with rhythms. Sometimes cycles of poems appear due to the background of life.

Lyrical hero - this concept is introduced by Yu. Tynyanov and “On Lyrics”. There are synonyms “lyrical consciousness”, “lyrical subject” and “lyrical self”. Most often, this definition is the image of a poet in lyric poetry, the poet’s artistic double, growing out of the text of lyrical compositions. This is a carrier of experience, expression in lyrics. The term arose due to the fact that it is impossible to equate the poet with the bearer of consciousness. This gap appears at the beginning of the 20th century in Batyushkov’s lyrics.

There may be different media, so there are two types of lyrics: autopsychological and role-playing. Example: Blok “I am Hamlet...” and Pasternak “The hum has died down...”. The image is the same, but the lyrics are different. Blok plays in the play, this is the experience of interpersonal relationships - autopsychological lyrics. Pasternak has a role-playing one, even included in the cycle of Yuri Zhivago. Most of it is in poetic form. Setting for an awkward verse - Nekrasov.

- Method. The concept of artistic method.

Method is a set of the most general principles of artistic thinking. A realistic artistic method and a non-realistic method are distinguished. Different models are emerging.

1. Selection of facts of reality for the image.

2. Evaluation.

3. Generalization - there are ideal models.

4. Artistic embodiment – ​​a system of artistic techniques.

Method is a supra-epochal concept. Realism is always there, but it is different, with different accents. Literary movements are the historical embodiment of an artistic method. Any direction has theoretical support, a manifesto. The state of philosophy determines the views of writers. Realism grows out of Hegel. Enlightenmentists - French materialism. Literary direction is always heterogeneous. Example: critical realism. Fight within the direction.