Classicism artistic style. Classicism in literature
Alexey Tsvetkov.
Classicism.
Classicism – art style speech and aesthetic direction in fiction XVII-XVIII centuries, formed in France in the 17th century. The founder of classicism is Boileau, in particular his work “Poetic Art” (1674). Boileau was based on the principles of harmony and proportionality of parts, logical harmony and laconicism of composition, simplicity of plot, and clarity of language. In France, “Low” genres – fable (J. Lafontaine), satire (N. Boileau) – have achieved special development. The flourishing of classicism in world literature was due to the tragedies of Corneille and Racine, the comedies of Moliere, the fables of La Fontaine, and the prose of La Rochefoucauld. In the era of enlightenment, the works of Voltaire, Lessing, Goethe and Schiller were associated with classicism.
The most important features of classicism:
1. Appeal to the images and forms of ancient art.
2. Heroes are clearly divided into positive and negative.
3. The plot is usually based on love triangle: the heroine is the hero-lover, the second lover.
4. At the end classic comedy Vice is always punished, and goodness triumphs.
5. The principle of three unities: time (the action lasts no more than a day), place, action.
The aesthetics of classicism establishes a strict hierarchy of genres:
1. “High” genres – tragedy, epic, ode, historical, mythological, religious picture.
2. “Low” genres – comedy, satire, fable, genre painting. (The exception is best comedies Moliere, they were assigned to the “high” genres)
In Russia, classicism originated in the first half of the 18th century. The first writer to use classicism was Antioch Cantemir. In Russian literature, classicism is represented by the tragedies of Sumarokov and Knyazhnin, the comedies of Fonvizin, and the poetry of Kantemir, Lomonosov, and Derzhavin. Pushkin, Griboedov, and Belinsky criticized the “rules” of classicism.
The history of the emergence of Russian classicism according to V.I. Fedorov:
1. Literature of Peter's time; it is of a transitional nature; the main feature is the intensive process of “secularization” (that is, the replacement of religious literature with secular literature - 1689-1725) - the prerequisites for the emergence of classicism.
2. 1730-1750 - these years are characterized by the formation of classicism, the creation of a new genre system, in-depth development of the Russian language.
3. 1760-1770 - the further evolution of classicism, the flowering of satire, the emergence of prerequisites for the emergence of sentimentalism.
4. The last quarter of a century - the beginning of the crisis of classicism, the emergence of sentimentalism, the strengthening of realistic tendencies
a. Direction, development, inclination, aspiration.
b. Concept, idea of presentation, images.
Representatives of classicism attached great importance to the educational function of art, striving in their works to create images of heroes worthy of imitation: resistant to the harshness of fate and the vicissitudes of existence, guided in their actions by duty and reason. Literature created the image of a new person who was confident that he needed to live for the benefit of society, to be a citizen and a patriot. The hero penetrates into the secrets of the universe, becomes active creative nature, such literary works turn into a textbook of life. Literature posed and resolved pressing issues of its time, and helped readers figure out how to live. By creating new heroes, diverse in character, representing different classes, the writers of classicism made it possible the next generation find out how people of the 18th century lived, what worried them, what they felt.
Europe 17-19 centuries. This period showed the world many talented authors who made significant contributions to the development of art: literature, painting, sculpture, music and architecture. The trends of classicism first appeared in France, when they returned to ancient times and the ideals of that time.
Features of classicism
The main features of this trend originate in antiquity. The authors' thinking was artistically oriented and tended towards clear, holistic expression, as well as simplicity. visual arts, balance and logic of statements. Therefore, we can say that the thinking of a person in the era of classicism is rational and idealized.
If we talk about the fact that classicism is related to antiquity, then it is important to note that their similarity lay in the form, which, however, might not meet the standards that were accepted in Classical art is distinguished from others, first of all, by respect for ancient values and the ability to display even when they are not relevant.
Characteristic classicism - ontological understanding of beauty. Here she is timeless, and therefore eternal, and also great attention devoted to the laws of harmony.
Psychologically, classicism is explained by the fact that in difficult historical periods, which are transitional and carry a lot of new things, a person strives to turn to what is unchangeable: for example, to the past. In this he finds support: the ancient Greeks are an example of rationalism in thinking, they gave humanity complete ideas about space and time, and many other phenomena in life, and they did it in a simple and accessible form. Complex and florid thoughts and their presentation do not mean the clarity and specificity that humanity required in a dramatically changing world. Therefore, antiquity played an important role in the formation of classicism.
The ideas of classicism are romantic, so many are of the opinion that they are inseparable. And yet there are significant differences in them: romanticism is more divorced from reality in its ideals and ways of displaying them than classicism.
What is classicism? V. Tatarkevich tried to explain this using several principles, which, in turn, were originally set out by the theorist L. B. Alberti:
- Beauty is an objective property real objects.
- Beauty is order, correct composition, which is assessed by the mind.
- Since art uses science, it must have rational discipline.
- An image created in the direction of classicism may be real, but depicted according to the model of antiquity.
What is classicism in painting
The main feature of this direction is artistic creativity manifests itself in the artist’s attitude to the work: his feelings, expressed through painting, are also subject to logic.
Among prominent representatives We can highlight the works of N. Prussin, who painted paintings with mythological themes. Particular attention is drawn to their precise geometric composition and thoughtful combination of colors. Also K. Lorrain: although the theme of his paintings differs from the works of N. Prussin (landscapes of the city’s environs), the rationalism in execution is also consistent: he harmonized them with the help of the light of the setting sun.
What is classicism in sculpture and architecture
Since in classicism the model was antique works, then when sculpting, the authors faced a contradiction: in Ancient Greece, models were depicted naked, but now this was immoral. Artists got out of the situation in a cunning way: they depicted real people in the image of ancient gods. During Napoleon's reign, sculptors began making models of togas.
Classicism in Russia arose much later, but, nevertheless, this did not prevent talented authors from appearing in this country who worked in accordance with his ideas: Boris Orlovsky, Fedot Shubin, Ivan Martos, Mikhail Kozlovsky.
In architecture they also sought to recreate the forms inherent in antiquity. Simplicity, rigor, monumentality and logical clarity are the main features.
What is classicism in literature
The main achievement of classicism is that they were divided into hierarchical groups: among them they distinguished high (epic, tragedy, ode) and low (fable, comedy and satire).
The literature has put forward a strict requirement for compliance genre characteristics in the work.
German Klassizismus lat. classicus - first-class, exemplary) - thin. style and direction in heb. literature and art XII - early. XIX centuries, one of the important features of which was the appeal to the samples and forms of ancient literature and art as an ideal aesthetic model.
Excellent definition
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CLASSICISM
a movement in art and literature that emerged in Europe in the 17th century. and received special development in France. The term “classicism” goes back to the Latin classicus, in its original meaning – “citizen of the highest property class”, then – “exemplary”, “perfect”. Classicism recognizes the existence of eternal laws of art and formulates fundamental principles, adherence to which is mandatory for the “correct” author (the set of classicist laws was set out by N. Boileau in his exemplary “Poetic Art” (1674). The one who mastered the norm better than others and did not departs from it in his works. An author who violates the rules was declared “unenlightened” (as the Russian classicist theorist A.P. Sumarokov called W. Shakespeare. Classicism is based on the principle of “imitation of nature,” which presupposes not truthfulness, but the plausibility of the image). . Only beautiful and sublime nature should be represented in the works. In practice, “imitation of nature”, the timeless aesthetic ideal, turned into imitation of exemplary ancient authors. True, imitation (imitatio) did not exclude ingenuity (inventio), that is, creative independence, although imitation. was valued much more. For a classicist author, imitation of the ancient classics was a kind of competition with them in achieving aesthetic perfection. The classicists emphasized that they were not interested in the random and individual, but in the constant and universal, and the ultimate goal of art is knowledge human nature. Classicism preferred reason to feeling, the rational to the emotional. The poetics of classicism requires a work to be harmonious and logical in composition, simplicity of plot, and clarity of language. The literary genres of classicism were characterized by their own set of characteristics and were clearly divided. At the same time, preference was given to genres in which the personal principle gives way to the transpersonal, universally significant. Classical genres are divided into high (tragedy, epic, ode) and low (fable, comedy). Confusing them was unacceptable, although often inevitable (A.P. Sumarokov himself, the author of the programmatic “Epistole on Poetry,” was accused of the fact that his epistole came close to satire). The place in the genre hierarchy was determined by the theme: in works of high genres, heroes of myths, monarchs and great generals of antiquity acted; in works of low genres, life was depicted ordinary people. Main genre French classicism there was a tragedy. It was based on a conflict between duty and passion, the number of heroes was reduced to a minimum, their speech was solemn and sublime (but not pretentious and “dark”), the audience learned about most events related to the action, but not presented on stage, from the speeches of the messengers. The requirements for the verisimilitude of dramatic action (both tragedy and comedy), as well as imitation of Aristotle, explain the so-called. “the theory of three unities” (place, time and action, although Aristotle spoke only about the unity of time and action). According to this theory, events should take place in one place (be it a room or a street), last no more than a day and develop around one conflict. The greatest creations French classicism, except poetry program N. Boileau, the tragedies of J. Racine and P. Corneille, the comedies of Moliere, the odes of F. Malherbe were recognized. The latter's creativity had big influence to create Russian odes - the main genre of Russian. classicism. In the 18th century rus. classicist writers sought to imitate French models (being likened to a French classic was a compliment, so M. V. Lomonosov was sung as the “Russian Malgerb”, A. P. Sumarokov as “our Boileau” (or “confidant of the Boals”) and “northern Racine” ). However, only the fundamental aesthetic requirements of classicist poetics remained unshakable (genre theory, theory of three unities, theory of imitation), in particular Russian. classicists were looking for their own paths. Thus, the creator of the program “Epistles on Poetry” A.P. Sumarokov was accused by his contemporaries of blindly imitating the author of “Poetic Art” N. Boileau. Since both authors wrote about “eternal” poetic laws, this plagiarism seems justified (by the way, Boileau himself was accused of imitating Horace’s “Epistle to the Pisoes”). At the same time, some differences in the approaches of Boileau and Sumarokov are well known: Sumarokov puts the poet’s education above talent, Boileau – talent above education; Sumarokov practically excludes the important principle for Boileau of “plaire” (to like) (J. Klein). These “minor” differences are explained primarily individual characteristics Sumarokov the poet. At the same time, the impossibility of applying M. V. Lomonosov’s “theory of three calms” to French poetic practice is associated with objective reasons: Russian. poets, unlike their French exemplary predecessors, had the opportunity to use in their works the words of Russian (creating middle and low “calms”) and Old Church Slavonic (creating high and middle “calms”) languages. In addition, the accelerated development of Russian. literature in the 18th century. led to the coexistence of various literary trends (for example, sentimentalist tendencies can be observed in the works of Russian classic poets in the pre-sentimentalist period, and the sentimentalist M. N. Muravyov began as an admirer of Sumarokov’s talent and a classicist). And finally, in contrast to French classicism of the 17th century, Russian. 18th century classicism was formed under the influence of the ideas of the Enlightenment. Rus. the authors took into account the experience of not only Boileau, Corneille and Racine, but also their contemporary Voltaire. The emergence of “enlightenment classicism” ultimately led to the creation of our own national. variants of this direction: English, German, Russian, and not one for all European literatures. An example of this: “Weimar classicism” by J. V. Goethe and F. Schiller, which is an original and unique literary phenomenon and at the same time remains classicism. In the beginning. 19th century classicism was rejected by the new literary movement - romanticism and left the stage.
Introduction
1.Characteristics of classicism
2.Fundamentals of classicism and its meaning
3.Features of classicism in Russia and its supporters
3.1 Kantemirov A.D.
3.2 Trediakovsky V.K.
3.3 Lomonosov M.V.
4. Russian classicism as literary direction
Conclusion
Bibliography
Introduction
From the Latin classicus - exemplary. A style or movement in literature and art of the 17th – early 19th centuries, which turned to the ancient heritage as the norm and ideal model. Classicism developed in the 17th century. in France. In the 18th century classicism was associated with the Enlightenment; based on the ideas of philosophical rationalism, on ideas about the rational regularity of the world, about beautiful ennobled nature, he strove to express great social content, sublime heroic and moral ideals, to strict organization of logical, clear and harmonious images.
In accordance with the sublime ethical ideas and educational program of art, the aesthetics of classicism established a hierarchy of genres - “high” (tragedy, epic, ode; historical, mythological, religious painting, etc.) and “low” (comedy, satire, fable; genre painting and etc.). In literature (tragedies by P. Corneille, J. Racine, Voltaire, comedies by Molière, the poem “The Art of Poetry” and satires by N. Boileau, fables by J. Lafontaine, prose by F. La Rochefoucauld, J. La Bruyère in France, creativity Weimar period I.V. Goethe and F. Schiller in Germany, odes to M.V. Lomonosov and G.R. Derzhavin, tragedy by A.P. Sumarokov and Ya.B. Knyazhnina in Russia) the leading role is played by significant ethical conflicts and normative typified images. For theatrical arts[Mondory, T. Duparc, M. Chanmele, A.L. Lequin, F.J. Talma, Rachel in France, F.K. Neuber in Germany, F.G. Volkov, I.A. Dmitrevsky in Russia] are characterized by a solemn, static structure of performances and measured reading of poetry. IN musical theater heroism, elation of style, logical clarity of dramaturgy, dominance of recitative (operas by J.B. Lully in France) or vocal virtuosity in arias (Italian opera seria) were established, noble simplicity and sublimity (reform operas by K.W. Gluck in Austria). Classicism in architecture (J. Hardouin - mansar, J.A. Gabriel, K.N. Ledoux in France, C. Wren in England, V.I. Bazhenov, M.F. Kazakov, A.N. Voronikhin, A.D. Zakharov, K.I. Rossi in Russia) is characterized by clarity and geometricity of forms, rational clarity of layout, combination of smooth walls and restrained decor. art(painters N. Poussin, C. Lorrain, J.L. David, J.O.D. Ingres, sculptors J.B. Pigalle, E.M. Falconet in France, I.G. Schadow in Germany, B. Thorvaldsen in Denmark, A. Canova in Italy, painters A.P. Losenko, G.I. Ugryumov, sculptors M.P. Matros in Russia) is distinguished by the logical development of the plot, strict balance of composition, plastic clarity of forms, clear harmony of linear rhythms.
1.Characteristics of classicism
This direction is characterized by high civic themes and strict adherence to certain creative norms and rules. Classicism, as a certain artistic movement, tends to reflect life in ideal images that gravitate toward a certain “norm” or model. Hence the cult of antiquity in classicism: classical antiquity appears in it as an example of modern and harmonious art. According to the rules of the aesthetics of classicism, which strictly adhered to the so-called “hierarchy of genres,” tragedy, ode and epic belonged to the “high genres” and had to be developed especially important issues, resorting to ancient and historical subjects, and depicting only the sublime, heroic aspects of life. “High genres” were opposed to “low” ones: comedy, fable, satire and others, designed to reflect modern reality.
Each genre had its own theme (selection of themes), and each work was built according to the rules developed for this purpose. Mix different techniques in a work literary genres strictly prohibited.
The most developed genres during the period of classicism were tragedies, poems and odes. Tragedy, in the understanding of classicists, is such dramatic work, which depicts a struggle outstanding in its mental strength individuals with insurmountable obstacles; such a struggle usually ends in the death of the hero. Classical writers based the tragedy on the clash (conflict) of the hero’s personal feelings and aspirations with his duty to the state. This conflict was resolved by the victory of duty. The plots of the tragedy were borrowed from writers ancient Greece and Rome, sometimes taken from historical events of the past. The heroes were kings and generals. Just like in Greco-Roman tragedy, characters were depicted either positive or negative, with each person representing one spiritual trait, one quality: positive courage, justice, etc., negative - ambition, hypocrisy. These were conventional characters. Life and the era were also conventionally depicted. There was no correct depiction of historical reality, nationality (it is unknown where and when the action takes place).
The tragedy had to have five acts.
The playwright had to strictly observe the rules of the “three unities”: time, place and action. The unity of time required that all the events of the tragedy fit within a period of no more than one day. The unity of place was expressed in the fact that the entire action of the play took place in one place - in the palace or in the square. Unity of action presupposed an internal connection of events; in the tragedy nothing unnecessary was allowed that was not necessary for the development of the plot. The tragedy had to be written in solemn and majestic verses.
The poem was an epic (narrative) work that presented an important historical event in poetic language or glorified the exploits of heroes and kings.
Ode is a solemn song of praise in honor of kings, generals, or victories won over enemies. The ode was supposed to express the author’s delight and inspiration (pathos). Therefore, it was characterized by elevated, solemn language, rhetorical questions, exclamations, appeals, personification of abstract concepts (science, victories), images of gods and goddesses and conscious exaggerations. In terms of the ode, “lyrical disorder” was allowed, which was expressed in a deviation from the harmony of presentation of the main theme. But this was a conscious, strictly considered retreat (“proper disorder”).
2.Fundamentals of classicism and its meaning
classicism literature style
The doctrine of classicism was based on the idea of the dualism of human nature. The greatness of man was revealed in the struggle between the material and the spiritual. The personality was affirmed in the fight against “passions” and freed from selfish material interests. Reasonable spirituality in man was considered as most important quality personality. The idea of the greatness of the mind that unites people found expression in the creation of the theory of art by the classicists. In the aesthetics of classicism, it is seen as a way of imitating the essence of things. “Virtue,” wrote Sumarokov, “we do not owe to our nature. Morals and politics make us, by the measure of enlightenment, reason and purification of hearts, useful to the common good. Without this, people would have destroyed each other long ago without a trace.”
Classicism is urban, metropolitan poetry. There are almost no images of nature in it, and if landscapes are given, they are urban; pictures of artificial nature are drawn: squares, grottoes, fountains, trimmed trees.
This direction is formed, experiencing the influence of other pan-European trends in art that are directly in contact with it: it starts from the aesthetics of the Renaissance that preceded it and confronts the Baroque art that actively coexists with it, imbued with the consciousness of the general discord generated by the crisis of the ideals of the past era. Continuing some traditions of the Renaissance (admiration for the ancients, faith in reason, the ideal of harmony and proportion), classicism was a kind of antithesis to it; behind the external harmony it hides the internal antinomy of the worldview, which makes it similar to the Baroque (for all its deep difference). The generic and the individual, the public and the personal, reason and feeling, civilization and nature, which appeared (in a trend) in the art of the Renaissance as a single harmonious whole, are polarized in classicism and become mutually exclusive concepts. This reflected a new historical condition, when the political and private spheres began to disintegrate, and public relations turn into a separate and abstract force for humans.
For its time, classicism had a positive meaning. Writers proclaimed the importance of a person fulfilling his civic duties and sought to educate a citizen; developed the question of genres, their composition, and streamlined the language. Classicism dealt a crushing blow to medieval literature, full of faith in the miraculous, in ghosts, which subordinated human consciousness to the teachings of the church. Earlier than others in foreign literature Enlightenment classicism was formed. In works devoted to XVIII century, then the direction is often assessed as having fallen into disrepair “high” classicism XVII century. This is not entirely true. Of course, there is a continuity between Enlightenment and “high” classicism, but Enlightenment classicism is an integral artistic direction, revealing the previously unused artistic potential of classicist art and possessing educational features. The literary doctrine of classicism was associated with advanced philosophical systems, representing a reaction to medieval mysticism and scholasticism. These philosophical systems were, in particular, the rationalist theory of Descartes and the materialist doctrine of Gassendi. The philosophy of Descartes, who declared reason to be the only criterion of truth, had a particularly great influence on the formation of the aesthetic principles of classicism. In Descartes' theory, materialistic principles, based on the data of the exact sciences, were uniquely combined with idealistic principles, with the assertion of the decisive superiority of the spirit, thinking over matter, being, with the theory of the so-called “innate” ideas. The cult of reason underlies the aesthetics of classicism. Since every feeling in the minds of adherents of the theory of classicism was random and arbitrary, the measure of a person’s value was for them the compliance of his actions with the laws of reason. Above all else in a person, classicism placed the “reasonable” ability to suppress personal feelings and passions in the name of one’s duty to the state. Man in the works of the followers of classicism is, first of all, a servant of the state, a man in general, because the refusal inner life personality naturally followed from the principle of subordination of the particular to the general proclaimed by classicism. Classicism depicted not so much people as characters, images and concepts. Typification was therefore carried out in the form of mask images, which were the embodiment human vices and virtues. Equally abstract was the setting outside of time and space in which these images operated. Classicism was ahistorical even in those cases when it turned to the depiction of historical events and historical figures, for writers were not interested in historical authenticity, but in the possibility, through the mouths of pseudo-historical heroes, of eternal and general truths, eternal and general properties characters supposedly inherent in people of all times and peoples.
