Poetics. Types of poetics. Tamarchenko N.D. Theoretical poetics: concepts and definitions

The task of poetics (otherwise - the theory of literature or literature) is to study the methods of constructing literary works. The object of study in poetics is fiction. The method of study is the description and classification of phenomena and their interpretation.

Literature, or literature - as this last name shows - is part of the verbal, or linguistic, activity of man. It follows that in a number of scientific disciplines, literary theory is closely related to the science that studies language, i.e. to linguistics. There are a number of border scientific problems, which can be equally attributed to both problems of linguistics and problems of literary theory.

However, there are special questions that belong specifically to poetics. We use language and words constantly in the community for the purpose of human communication. The practical sphere of application of language is everyday “conversations”. In conversation, language is the medium of communication, and our attention and interests are directed exclusively to what is communicated, the “thought”; We usually pay attention to verbal formulation only insofar as we strive to accurately convey to our interlocutor our thoughts and our feelings, and for this we look for expressions that most correspond to our thoughts and emotions.

Expressions are created in the process of utterance and are forgotten, disappearing after they reach their goal - instilling in the listener what is required. In this respect, practical speech is unique, because it lives in the conditions of its creation; its character and form are determined by the circumstances of the conversation, the relationship between the speakers, the degree of their mutual understanding, the interests that arise during the conversation, etc. Since the conditions that give rise to conversation are generally unique, the conversation itself is unique.

But in verbal creativity there are also verbal constructions, the meaning of which does not depend on the circumstances of their utterance; formulas that, once they have arisen, do not die out, are repeated and preserved so that they can be reproduced again and do not lose their original meaning when reproduced again. We call such fixed, preserved verbal structures literary works.

In its elementary form, every successful expression, remembered and repeated, is a literary work. These are sayings, proverbs, sayings, etc. But usually literary works mean constructions of a slightly larger volume.

The system of expressions of a work—in other words, its text—can be consolidated in different ways. You can fix the speech in writing or printed - then we get written literature; it is possible to memorize a text and transmit it orally - then we get oral literature, which develops mainly in an environment that does not know writing. The so-called folklore - folk oral literature - is preserved and arises mainly in layers alien to literacy.

Thus, a literary work has two properties: 1) independence from the random everyday conditions of utterance and 2) the fixed immutability of the text. Literature is an intrinsically valuable fixed speech.

The very nature of these signs shows that there is no firm boundary between practical speech and literature. Often we fix our practical speech, which is random and temporary in nature, according to the conditions of its transmission to the interlocutor. We write a letter to someone to whom we cannot directly address with live speech. A letter may or may not be a literary work. On the other hand, a literary work may remain unrecorded; being created at the moment of its reproduction (improvisation), it can disappear. These are improvised plays, poems (impromptu), oratory, etc.

Playing human life the same role as purely literary works, fulfilling their function and taking on their meaning, these improvisations are part of literature, despite their random, transient nature. On the other hand, the independence of literature from the conditions of its origin should be understood restrictively: we must not forget that all literature is unchanged only within more or less wide limits. historical era and understandable to segments of the population of a certain cultural and social level.

I will not multiply examples of borderline linguistic phenomena; I only want to point out with these examples that in sciences like poetics, there is no need to strive to strictly legally delineate the areas being studied, there is no need to look for mathematical or natural science definitions. It is enough if there is a number of phenomena that undoubtedly belong to the area under study - the presence of phenomena that only more or less possess a noted attribute, so to speak, standing on the boundaries of the area under study, does not deprive us of the right to study this area of ​​phenomena and cannot discredit the chosen definition.

The field of literature is not united. In literature we can outline two broad classes of works. The first class, to which scientific treatises belong, journalistic works etc., always has an obvious, unconditional, objective purpose of utterance, lying outside the purely literary activity of a person. A scientific or educational treatise aims to convey objective knowledge about something that really exists; a political article aims to motivate the reader to take some action. This area of ​​literature is called prose in the broad sense of the word.

But there is literature that does not have this objective, obvious purpose lying on the surface. A typical feature of this literature is the treatment of fictitious and conventional objects. Even if the author has the goal of communicating scientific truth to the reader (popular science novels) or influencing his behavior (propaganda literature), this is done by arousing other interests contained in the literary work itself.

While in prose literature the object of immediate interest always lies outside the work, in this second area interest is directed towards the work itself. This area of ​​literature is called poetry (in a broad sense).

The interest awakened in us by poetry and the feelings that arise when perceiving poetic works are psychologically related to the interest and feelings aroused by the perception of works of art, music, painting, dance, ornament - in other words, this interest is aesthetic or artistic. Therefore, poetry is also called fiction in contrast to prose - non-fiction. We will use these terms primarily, due to the fact that the words “poetry” and “prose” have another meaning, which will often have to be used in further presentation.

The discipline that studies the construction of non-fiction works is called rhetoric; the discipline that studies the construction of works of art is poetics. Rhetoric and poetics are composed of general theory literature.

Poetics is not the only one who studies fiction. There are a number of other disciplines that study the same object. These disciplines differ from each other in their approach to the phenomena being studied.

A historical approach to works of art is provided by the history of literature. A literary historian studies every work as an indivisible, integral unity, as an individual and valuable phenomenon in its own right among other individual phenomena. Analyzing individual parts and aspects of a work, he strives only to understand and interpret the whole. This study is complemented and united by historical coverage of what is being studied, i.e. establishing connections between literary phenomena and their significance in the evolution of literature.

Thus, the historian studies the grouping of literary schools and styles, their succession, the importance of tradition in literature, and the degree of originality of individual writers and their works. Describing the general course of development of literature, the historian interprets this difference, discovering the reasons for this evolution, which lie both within literature itself and in the relationship of literature to other phenomena human culture, in whose environment literature develops and with whom it is in constant relationship. Literary history is a branch general history culture.

Another approach is theoretical. At theoretical approach literary phenomena are subject to generalization, and therefore are considered not in their individuality, but as the results of the application of general laws of construction of literary works.

Each work is deliberately decomposed into its component parts; in the construction of the work, the methods of such construction differ, i.e. ways of combining verbal material into artistic unities. These techniques are the direct object of poetics. If attention is paid to the historical genesis, to the origin of these techniques, then we have historical poetics, which traces the historical fate of such techniques that are isolated in the study.

But in general poetics it is not the origin that is studied poetic devices, but a non-artistic function. Each technique is studied from the point of view of its artistic expediency, i.e. analyzes why this technique is used and what artistic effect it achieves. In general poetics, functional study literary device and is the guiding principle in the description and classification of the phenomena being studied.

Nevertheless, although the methods and tasks of theoretical study differ significantly from the methods and tasks of historical disciplines, an evolutionary point of view must always be present in poetics. If in poetics the question of the historical significance of a literary work as a whole, considered as some organic system, is not significant, then the study and interpretation of the immediate artistic effect should always be carried out against the background of the usual, historically established application of this technique.

The same technique changes its artistic function depending, for example, on whether it is a sign of literary modernism and is felt as unusual, breaking tradition, or whether it is an element of this tradition, a sign of the “old school”.

There is another approach to literary works, represented in normative poetics. The task of normative poetics is not an objective description of existing techniques, but a value judgment about them and the prescription of certain techniques as the only logical ones. Normative poetics aims to teach how literary works should be written.

Each literary school has its own views on literature, its own rules and, consequently, its own normative poetics. Literary codes, expressed in literary manifestos and declarations, in directional criticism, in belief systems professed by various literary circles, represent various forms of normative poetics. The history of literature is partly a revelation of the real content of normative poetics that determines being individual works and the evolution of this content in changes in literary schools.

What was called “poetics” at the beginning of the 19th century was a mixture of problems of general and normative poetics. The “rules” were not only described, but also prescribed. This poetics was essentially normative poetics French classicism, established in the 17th century. and dominated literature for two centuries.

Given the relative slowness of literary evolution, this poetics could seem unshakable to contemporaries, and its demands could seem inherent in the very nature of verbal art. But in early XIX V. there was a literary split between the classics and the romantics, who led the new poetics; after romanticism came naturalism; then at the end of the century symbolism, futurism, etc. The rapid change of literary schools, especially noticeable at the present time, which is revolutionary in all areas of human culture, proves the illusory nature of the desire to find a universal normative poetics.

Any literary norm put forward by one movement is usually met with negation in the opposite literary school. Despite the fact that each literary school usually claims that its aesthetic principles are universally binding, with the decline of the school’s literary influence, its principles also fall, being replaced by new ones in the new movement that replaces the old one. It is impossible now to build any kind of normative poetics that claims to be stable, since the crisis of art, expressed in the rapid change of literary movements and their changeability, has not yet passed.

Here we will not set ourselves normative tasks, being content with an objective description and interpretation of literary material, i.e. Let us confine ourselves to questions of general poetics.

In choosing material we will turn mainly to literature of the 19th century. as the closest to us. We will, if possible, avoid turning to literary material before the 17th century, because it was from the 17th century. History begins in Europe new literature, the continuous transmission of literary tradition from generation to generation begins, and only a few works created earlier have an impact on the work of later eras, and even these works (such as ancient literature, literature eastern peoples) are so modified, refracted through the conventional interpretation of modern times, that it is difficult to talk about their direct and holistic impact on the literary tradition.

Tomashevsky B.V. Theory of literature. Poetics - M., 1999

The problem of adequacy of interpretation.

Description, analysis and interpretation work of art.

The concept of historical poetics of Veselovsky A.N.

Poetics. Types of poetics.

Lecture outline

Analysis and philological interpretation of a work of art.

Poetics and methodology of literary criticism.

Lecture 2

Additional SI units for plane and solid angles

The unit of a plane angle is radian (rad) - the angle between 2 radii of a circle, the arc between which is equal in length to the radius, equal to 57 ° 17 / 44.8 //.

The unit of solid angle is the steradian (sr) - a solid angle whose vertex is located at the center of the sphere and which cuts out on the surface of the sphere an area equal to the area of ​​a square with a side length equal to the radius of the sphere.

W = 2p (1-cos a/2)

1W = Ð 65 ° 32 / , angle p av = Ð 120 ° , angle 2p av = Ð 180 ° , other units are arbitrary.

Poetics(Greek poiētiké téchnē - poetic art) is the science of the system of means of expression in literary works, one of the oldest literary disciplines.

In ancient times (from Aristotle (IV century BC) to the classicist theorist Boileau (XVII century), the term “poetics" denoted the doctrine of verbal art in general. This word was synonymous with what is now called literary theory. Currently in in the expanded sense of the word poetics coincides with literary theory, in a narrowed– from one of the areas of theoretical poetics.

How field of literary theory poetics studies the specifics literary families and genres, trends and directions, styles and methods, explores the laws of internal connection and correlation of various levels of the artistic whole. Depending on which aspect (and scope of the concept) is put at the center of the study, it is customary to speak, for example, about the poetics of romanticism, the poetics of the novel, the poetics of the work of a writer as a whole or one work.

In Russia, theoretical poetics began to take shape in the 1910s and strengthened in the 1920s. This fact marked a serious shift in the understanding of literature. In the 19th century, the subject of study was primarily not the works themselves, but what was embodied and refracted in them (social consciousness, legends and myths, plots and motifs as the common heritage of culture; the biography and spiritual experience of the writer): scientists looked, as it were, through the works , rather than focusing on them. In other words, in the 19th century, scientists were primarily interested in the spiritual, worldview, and general cultural preconditions of artistic creativity. Literary scholars have been primarily concerned with studying the conditions in which works were created, with much less attention paid to the analysis of the texts themselves. The formation of theoretical poetics contributed to a change in the situation; the main object became the works themselves, but everything else (psychology, views and biography of the author, social genesis literary creativity and the impact of works on the reader) is considered as something auxiliary and secondary.

Since all means of expression in literature ultimately come down to language, poetics can also be defined as the science of the artistic use of language. The verbal (i.e. linguistic) text of the work is the only material form the existence of its content, according to it the consciousness of readers and researchers constructs the content of the work, striving either to recreate the author’s intention (“Who was Hamlet for Shakespeare?”) or to fit it into the culture of changing eras (“What does Hamlet mean to us?”). Both approaches ultimately rely on a verbal text studied by poetics. Hence the importance of poetics in the system of literary criticism.

The goal of poetics is to isolate and systematize the elements of the text that participate in the formation of the aesthetic impression of the work. All elements are involved artistic speech, but to varying degrees: for example, in lyric poems, plot elements play a small role and rhythm and phonics play a large role, and in narrative prose, vice versa. Every culture has its own set of means that distinguish literary works from non-literary ones: restrictions are imposed on rhythm (verse), vocabulary and syntax (“poetic language”), themes (favorite types of characters and events). Against the background of this system of means, its violations are no less powerful aesthetic stimulant: “prosaisms” in poetry, the introduction of new unconventional themes in prose, etc. A researcher who belongs to the same culture as the work he is studying better senses these poetic interruptions, and the background takes them for granted. A researcher of a foreign culture, on the contrary, first of all feels common system techniques (mainly in its differences from what is familiar to him) and less - the system of its violations. The study of the poetic system “from within” a given culture leads to the construction normative poetics(more conscious, as in the era of classicism, or less conscious, as in European literature of the 19th century), research “from the outside” leads to the construction descriptive poetics. Until the 19th century, while regional literatures were closed and traditionalistic, the normative type of poetics dominated. Normative poetics focused on the experience of one of the literary movements and substantiated it. The emergence of world literature (starting from the era of romanticism) puts forward the task of creating descriptive poetics.

Usually vary general poetics(theoretical or systematic – “macropoetics”) private(or actually descriptive – “micropoetics”) and historical.

General poetics, which explains the universal properties of verbal and artistic works, is divided into three areas that study, respectively sound, verbal And figurative structure of the text.

The purpose of general poetics– compile a complete systematized repertoire of techniques (aesthetically effective elements) covering all these three areas.

The sound structure of works is studiedphonics(sound organization of artistic speech) and rhythm , and in relation to the verse - also metrics And stanza(these concepts are usually not differentiated, and if they are, then metric means a combination of sounds and combining them into feet, and rhythm means a combination of feet into lines).

Since the primary material for study in this case is provided by poetic texts, this area is often called (too narrowly) poetry.

IN verbal structure features are being studied vocabulary, morphology And syntax works; the corresponding area is called stylistics (there is no consensus on the extent to which stylistics as linguistic and literary disciplines coincide with each other). Features of vocabulary (“selection of words”) and syntax (“connection of words”) have long been studied by poetics and rhetoric, where they were considered as stylistic figures and tropes. The features of morphology (“the poetry of grammar”) have become a subject of consideration in poetics only recently.

IN figurative structure works study images (characters and objects), motives (actions and deeds), plots (connected sets of actions); this area is called “topics” (traditional name), “thematics” (B. Tomashevsky) or “poetics” in the narrow sense of the word (B. Yarho). If poetry and stylistics have been considered in poetics since ancient times, then topic, on the contrary, has been little developed, since it was believed that art world works are no different from the real world; therefore, a generally accepted classification of the material has not yet been developed.

Private poetics deals with the study of works in all of the above aspects, which makes it possible to create a “model” - an individual system of aesthetically effective properties of the work.

In this case, the word “poetics” defines a certain facet of the literary process, namely, the attitudes and principles of individual writers implemented in the work, as well as artistic directions and entire eras. Famous Russian scientists own monographs on poetics ancient Russian literature, about the poetics of romanticism, the poetics of Gogol, Dostoevsky, Chekhov. The origins of this terminological tradition are the research of A.N. Veselovsky. creativity of Zhukovsky V.A., where there is a chapter “Romantic poetics of Zhukovsky”.

The main problem of private poetics is composition , that is, the mutual correlation of all aesthetically significant elements of the work (phonic, metric, stylistic, figurative plot and general composition that unites them) in their functional relationship with the artistic whole.

Here the difference between small and large literary forms is significant: in a small one, the number of connections between elements, although large, is not inexhaustible, and the role of each in the system of the whole can be shown comprehensively; V big shape this is impossible, and a significant part of the internal connections remains unaccounted for as aesthetically imperceptible (for example, the connection between phonics and plot).

The final concepts to which all means of expression can be raised during analysis are the “image of the world” (with its main characteristics, artistic time and artistic space) and the “image of the author”, the interaction of which gives a “point of view” that determines everything important in the structure works. These three concepts emerged in poetics through the experience of studying literature of the 19th century– XX centuries; Before this, European poetics was content with a simplified distinction between three literary genres: drama (giving the image of the world), lyric poetry (giving the image of the author) and the intermediate epic between them.

The basis of private poetics (“micropoetics”) are descriptions of individual works, but more generalized descriptions of groups of works (one cycle, one author, genre, literary movement, historical era) are also possible. Such descriptions can be formalized into a list of initial elements of the model and a list of rules for their connection; as a result of the consistent application of these rules, the process of gradual creation of a work from thematic and ideological plan before the final verbal design (the so-called generative poetics ).

Historical poetics studies the evolution of individual poetic devices and their systems with the help of comparative historical literary criticism, identifying common features poetic systems of different cultures and reducing them either (genetically) to a common source or (typologically) to universal laws of human consciousness.

The roots of literary literature go back to oral literature, which represents the main material of historical poetics, which sometimes makes it possible to reconstruct the course of development of individual images, stylistic figures and poetic meters from deep (for example, pan-Indo-European antiquity).

The subject of historical poetics, which exists as part of comparative historical literary criticism, is the evolution of verbal and artistic forms (possessing content), as well as creative principles writers: their aesthetic attitudes and artistic worldview.

The main problem of historical poetics is genre in the broadest sense of the word, from artistic literature in general to such varieties as “European love elegy”, “classic tragedy”, “ psychological novel", etc. - that is, a historically established set of poetic elements of various kinds, not deducible from each other, but associated with each other as a result of long coexistence. The boundaries separating literature from non-literature, and the boundaries separating genre from genre, are changeable, and eras of relative The stability of these poetic systems alternates with eras of decanonization and form-creation; these changes are studied by historical poetics.

Poetics as a name for a discipline dates back to Aristotle.

In Aristotle's Poetics:

• task of describing the construction of a project
• the task of prescription (how to achieve perfection of form, for example, not to depict absolutely worthy and absolutely unworthy people). The criterion for prescription is the greatest impact on the reader.

After Aristotle, poetics becomes a school discipline, dependent on rhetoric (poetics is a secondary discipline).

The most famous normative poetics in Europe: N. Boileau. Considers all genres of poetry and style. Points to the ideal patterns in each. Genres. Criteria – moral benefit, didactics. The instructions are addressed directly to the poet. Clarity of style, absence of trifles, digressions... vernacular...

In the 2nd book he talks about different features of the genre.

The features of Aristotle's poetics are preserved. Description – prescription (dominates).

Target: aesthetic effect, artistic effect.

IN late XVIII V. The era of normative poetics is ending.

Romantics mix genres, styles... Destruction of poetics as a science.

In the 19th century literary criticism appears as a science (literary history and folkloristics).

MM. Bakhtin "Problems of Dostoevsky's poetics"

• the author and the author’s position in relation to the hero (heroes do not receive a negative assessment, dialogue between the author and the hero);
• ideas of Dostoevsky (characters as heroic ideologists);
• plot (form of construction, origins of plots);
• word about Dostoevsky (types of verbal constructions).

Features of modern poetics:

• research into the work of a specific author;
• pr-nie is studied by levels;
• description certain genre and consideration of its origins;
• lack of prescription.

Poetics is interested in the construction of a text. Author's philosophy (Dostoevsky: Orthodox man, monarchist, conservative, imperialist, etc., but Dostoevsky the writer is a completely different figure; the text says more than the author wanted to say).

Poetics - internal principles artistic thinking author (through analysis of specific texts).

Poetics is the science of specific artistic means expressions in literature. Poetics? literary theory (poetics focused on texts).

Poetics is primarily interested in literary text.

Any application is multifunctional. The function of ancient texts is mnemonic, memorization. Spells or prayers must be remembered very precisely, so a poetic form arises. Archaic folklore. The Middle Ages period is characterized by the fact that thin. functions are inferior to sacred, political ones, the religious cult is aestheticized and embellished. Functions may vary depending on the situation.

Didactic poem– a form of natural science knowledge and philosophy (“On the nature of things”).

Hood. biography. Always a documentary moment. XIX-XX centuries - novelized biography. Compiles a biography of a famous person, filling in any gaps in the biography with plausible material. Those. The text is partly documentary, partly fiction.

Memoirs – informative, journalistic and artistic. functions.

Almost any text can be treated as bad. pr-nu.

Poetics studies not only art. pr-niya (from the point of view of stylistics...). Poetics is not just a local discipline. Explores the construction of any text. Methods of poetics are also used in other humanities.

Discourse is a certain type of text (special differences). Poetics is a general theory of discourse.

How does the text work?

There is never anything superfluous or random in the text. The text is perceived as a system of interconnected elements. It is necessary to show the role of each element. The dominant is what unites the text into one whole. The essence of each systems are limitations on the entire range of possibilities. Lexicon, metaphors, etc. are limited.

Each era has its own set of thins. funds.

• meters (iamb, trochee...) were created by the reform of the 18th century.
• rigid genre system: ode, tragedy, heroic poem(vocabulary: words that go back to the Church Slavonic language, and some neutral words).
• rhythm. emphasis.

XIX century – non-classical size.

XX century - Mayakovsky's rhyme.

Those. restrictions in formal techniques and in theme (the ode and elegy have absolutely different topics). Gradually the genres are mixed (novel).

Each era has its own system of art. means, which writers and poets themselves often do not understand. Poetics must restore these restrictions, separate tradition from innovation. Historical poetics is close to the tasks of linguistics. Linguistics studies the history and evolution of language; at each stage, language is a system (F. de Saussure - structural linguistics). At each stage, language is a closed, complete system. Speech is its realization. The task of linguistics is the study of language as a system (phonetics - phoneme, morphology - morpheme, vocabulary - lexeme, grammar - grammeme; there are rules by which these units are combined). Each language has its own rules that change over time. This idea influenced poetics. The text also began to be represented as a system in which elements are connected according to rules.

The goal of general poetics is to restore these systems.

General poetics:

SOUND, WORD, IMAGE.

1. The sound and rhythmic side of a literary text, mainly poetic (POETRY).

Sounds and their combinations, sound features specific to poetic speech. Rhyme - repetitions of sounds, consonances (accurate - inaccurate, end, etc.). Assonance. Alliteration.

Speech is constructed in such a way that these repetitions, which perform a specific function, are noticeable.

Rhythmics

Studying different types rhythms. Non-classical sizes, individual characteristics from the poets. Rhythm in prose (sometimes the author deliberately writes in some kind of rhythm).

Strophic

Rhyme order. The stanza is a formal unity (substantive unity).

Melodica

Intonation (in addition to the possibilities of speech, there are possibilities of intonation in the poem itself). Spoken and sung verse.

2. Word (STYLISTICS).

Vocabulary

Style. Obsolete words, archaisms, historicisms (may be associated with the Bible), words from the Holy Books - Slavicisms - the effect of high style. Colloquialisms, vulgarisms, neologisms (a sign of individual style) - low style. Functions of words in art. text.

Changing the basic meaning of a word is a metaphor: outdated (erased), copyrighted, individual. A sign of the style of a certain era or the individual style of a writer.

Rhetoric - classification of tropes..

Rep. synth. figures (anaphora...), omissions, inversions.

Stylistics – between linguistics and literary criticism. A word in art is not equal to a word in the dictionary.

3. Image (SUBJECT, TOPIC).

Any literary text can be considered as a text or as a world. An analogy between reality and what happens inside the pr.

Space and time

Interconnected unity. In any project there are boundaries of the depicted world. The artist in every era is limited by the knowledge and characteristics of the literary trends of the era. Each genre has its own idea of ​​the passage of time.

The objective world is landscape, interior.

What can be depicted and what cannot be depicted. Combination.

Action

The exception is essay, didactic and descriptive poetry. Motive is the elementary unit of action. Narratology is wherever there is a story.

Character

Any literary hero– conscious construction of the author. Literature cannot exist without a character. pr-nie. Literature is a way of knowing a person.

Poetics is the reconstruction of artistic means for all literature. Historical poetics is the representation of the literary process as a change in artistic systems.

I. SUBJECT OF POETICS

the relationship of poetics with philosophical aesthetics, on the one hand, and with linguistics, on the other. Try to explain them. Poetics another phenomenon of literature (less often cinema, theater) - its internal structure, the specific system of its components and their relationships (in this sense they speak of cinema, drama or novel,, romanticism, A. S. Pushkin, “War and Peace” by L. N. Tolstoy, etc.); Until the 18th century was mainly poetics of poetic and, moreover, “high” genres. Of the prose genres, mainly the genres of solemn, oratorical speech were attracted, for the study of which there was a special scientific discipline - Poetics rhetoric has accumulated rich material for the classification and description of many phenomena, literary language , but at the same time having a similar, normative-dogmatic character. Attempts to theoretically analyze the nature of artistic prose genres (for example, the novel) initially arise outside the realm of official Only enlighteners (G.E. Poetics Lessing Poetics D. Diderot ) in the fight against classicism deal the first blow to the dogmatism of the old Even more significant was the penetration into, historical ideas, associated in the West with the names of J. Vico, the evolution of its material and spiritual culture. Herder, J.W. Goethe, and then the romantics (see. Romanticism ) included in the area Poetics the study of folklore and prose genres, laying the foundation for a broad understanding of Poetics How philosophical teaching about the general forms of development and evolution of poetry (literature), which on the basis of idealistic dialectics was systematized by G. Hegel in the 3rd volume of his “Lectures on Aesthetics” (1838).

In the 2nd half of the 19th century. The dialectical-idealistic philosophical aesthetics of Hegel is being replaced in the West by positivism (V. Scherer ), and in the 20th century. - numerous areas of “psychological” (see. Psychological school in literary criticism), formalist (O. Walzel; see also "Formal Method" in literary criticism), existentialist (E. Steiger), “psychoanalytic” (see. Psychoanalysis ), ritual-mythological (see Ritual-mythological school ), “structural” (R. Jacobson, R. Bart; see also Structuralism ) and etc. Poetics Each of them accumulated a significant number of observations and private ideas, but due to the metaphysical, often ahistorical nature scientific methodology could not give in principle the right decision main issues Poetics, subordinating it to theoretically one-sided conclusions or (especially in the 20th century) to the practice of narrow, sometimes modernist art schools and directions.

The oldest surviving treatise on Poetics, known in Ancient Rus', is an article by the Byzantine writer George Hirovosk “on images” in handwritten Izbornike Svyatoslav 1073. At the end of the 17th - beginning of the 18th centuries. in Russia and Ukraine, a number of school “piitik” appeared for teaching poetry and eloquence (for example, “De arte poetica” by F. Prokopovich, 1705, published 1786 in Latin). Significant role in the development of scientific Poetics in Russia they played M.V. Lomonosov and V.K. Trediakovsky, and at the beginning of the 19th century. - A. Kh. Vostokov. Great value for Poetics represent judgments about the literature of A. S. Pushkin, N. V. Gogol, I. S. Turgenev, F. M. Dostoevsky, L. N. Tolstoy, A. Poetics Chekhov and other classics, theoretical ideas of N. I. Nadezhdin, V. G. Belinsky (“Division of poetry into genera and types,” 1841), N. A. Dobrolyubov. They prepared the ground for the emergence in the 2nd half of the 19th century. in Russia Poetics as a special scientific discipline, represented by the works of A.A. Potebnya and the founder of historical Poetics- A.N. Veselovsky.

After October revolution 1917 series of questions Poetics, in particular the problems of verse, poetic language, plot composition, were intensively developed in formalistic ( OPOYAZ ) and linguistic (V.V. Vinogradov ) basis; psychological development continued Poetics, based on the traditions of Potebnya (A.I. Beletsky ), as well as other directions (V.M. Zhirmunsky, MM. Bakhtin ). In the fight against the “formal method”, Marxist theorists (V.M. Fritsche etc.) were repeatedly put forward in the 20-30s. the task of creating a “sociological Poetics" The development of the aesthetic heritage of K. Marx and V. I. Lenin (in the 30s, and then in the 60-70s), the philosophical principles of the theory of reflection, the Marxist doctrine of the relationship between content and form created the necessary prerequisites for further development Poetics in line with Marxism. A significant impetus to him was given by the creativity and aesthetic judgments of Soviet writers (M. Gorky, V.V. Mayakovsky, etc.). Problems based on the philosophical and aesthetic ideas of Marxism Poetics are now also being developed in a number of others. socialist countries(Bulgaria, Hungary, GDR, Poland).

Complication internal structure literature in the 20th century, the emergence in it, along with “traditional”, of numerous “non-traditional” forms and techniques, the entry of literature into the global use of humanity different nations, countries and eras with unequal cultural and historical traditions have led to an expansion of the problems of modern Poetics The problems of the relationship between the author’s point of view and the perspectives of individual characters, the image of the narrator, the analysis of artistic time and space, etc., become relevant. The following directions of modern Poetics, as a study of the internal patterns of various dissimilar literary systems (D.S. Likhachev, N.I. Conrad ), Poetics literary types and genres, methods and trends, Poetics modern literature, Poetics composition, literary language and verse, a separate work of art, etc. A special direction in Soviet Poetics consists of the works of scientists seeking to use semiotic and structural methods.

Lit.: Aristotle, On the art of poetry, M., 1957; Horace, Epistle to the Piso, Complete. collection soch., M. - L., 1936; Boileau N., Poetic art, M., 1957; Hegel, Aesthetics, vol. 3, M., 1971, ch. 3; Belinsky V.G., Division of poetry into genera and types, Complete. collection soch., vol. 5, M. - L., 1954; Veselovsky A. N., Historical poetics, Leningrad, 1940; Potebnya A. A., From notes on the theory of literature, Khar., 1905; Zhirmunsky V. M., Questions of the theory of literature, Leningrad, 1928; Tynyanov Yu. M., The problem of poetic language, M., 1965; Tomashevsky B.V., Theory of Literature. Poetics, 6th ed., M. - L., 1931; Shklovsky B.V., Fiction. Reflections and analysis, M., 1961; Khrapchenko M. B., On the development of problems of poetics and stylistics, “Izv. Academy of Sciences of the USSR. Department of Literature and Language", 1961, vol. 20, century. 5; Literary theory, [vol. 1-3], M., 1962-1965; Bakhtin M. M., Problems of Dostoevsky’s poetics, 3rd ed., M., 1972; Vinogradov V.V., Stylistics. Theory of poetic speech. Poetics, M., 1963; Likhachev D.S., Poetics of Old Russian Literature, 2nd ed., Leningrad, 1971; Lotman Yu. M., The structure of a literary text, M., 1970; Friedlander G. M., Poetics of Russian realism, Leningrad, 1971; Studies in poetics and stylistics, Leningrad, 1972; Scherer., Poetik, V., 1888; Kayser., Das sprachliche Kunstwerk, 12 Aufl., Bern - Münch, 1967; Staiger E., Grundbegriffe der Poetik, 8 Aufl., Z., 1968; Weliek R., Warren A., Theory of literature, 3 ed., . ., 1963; Poetics. Poetika. Poetics, Warsz. - . - The Haque, 1961; Jakobson R., Questions de poétique, ., 1973; Markwardt ., Geschichte der deutschen Poetik, Bd 1-5, V. - Lpz., 1937-1967; "Poetica", Münch., 1967-; "Poetics", The Hague - .,1971-; "poetique", .,1970-.

G. M. Friedlander.

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