Is there a single world civilization? What is civilization? Features, traits, development of civilization. History of Russian, Western, Eastern, modern civilizations. World civilizations Global civilizations examples from history

How did human mentality and psychology lead to these huge changes? It continues to be a popular topic among historians and anthropologists and a serious debate today. Let's highlight some of the oldest civilizations that have ever existed in the world.

Of course, we will talk about civilizations that, as we know, really exist, in contrast to those that are shrouded in myths and speculation (the civilizations of Atlantis, Lemuria and Rama...).

In order to correctly display the most ancient of civilizations in chronological order, it becomes necessary to look at the very cradle of civilization. Having said that, here is a list of the ten oldest civilizations that have ever existed in the world:

Inca civilization

Period: 1438 AD - 1532 AD
Starting place: current Peru
Current location: Ecuador, Peru and Chile

The Incas were the largest Empire in South America during the pre-Columbian era. This civilization flourished in the areas of present-day Ecuador, Peru and Chile and had its administrative, military and political center located in Cusco, which is located in modern-day Peru. The Incas had their societies quite well developed, and the empire was prosperous from the very beginning.

The Incas were devout followers of the Sun God Inti. They had a king who was called "Sapa Inca", which means "child of the Sun". The first Inca emperor Pachacuti transformed it from a humble village into a great city laid out in the shape of a puma. He expanded the traditions of ancestor worship.

When the ruler died, his son took control of the people, but all his wealth would be distributed among his other relatives, who in return supported his political influence. This significantly led to the sudden rise in power of the Incas. The Incas continued to become great builders, they continued to build fortresses and places like Machu Picchu and the city of Cusco, which are still preserved on our planet.

Aztec civilization

Period: 1345 AD - 1521 AD
Starting location: South-central region of pre-Columbian Mexico
Current location: Mexican

The Aztecs came onto the “scene,” one might say, at a time when the Incas were emerging as powerful rivals in South America. Around the 1200s and early 1300s, people in what is now Mexico lived in their three major rival cities - Tenochtitlan, Texcoco and Tlacopan. Around 1325, these rivals formed an alliance, and thus the new state was brought under the authority of the Valley of Mexico. By the way, back then people preferred the name Mexica rather than Aztec. The rise of the Aztecs occurred during the century of the fall of another influential civilization in Mexico and Central America, the Mayans.

The city of Tenochtitlan was the military force that led the conquest of the new territory. But the Aztec emperor did not rule over every city, but had the subordination of the entire people. Local authorities remained in place, but were forced to pay various amounts to the Triple Alliance.

In the early 1500s, the Aztec civilization was truly at the height of its power. But then the Spaniards arrived with plans to expand their lands. This eventually led to a huge battle between the Incas and the alliance of Spanish conquistadors and local allies they assembled under the famous Hernán Cortés in 1521. The defeat in this decisive battle ultimately led to the fall of the once famous Aztec Empire.

Roman civilization

Period:
Place of origin: Latini village
Current location: Rome

Roman civilization entered the “picture of the world” around the 6th century BC. Even the story behind ancient Rome is a legend, full of myths. But at the height of their power, the Romans controlled the largest piece of land in that era - the entire current district that surrounds the modern Mediterranean Sea was part of ancient Rome.

Early Rome was ruled by kings, but after only seven of them reigned, the Romans seized control of their own city and ruled themselves. They then had a council known as the "senate" that ruled over them. From this moment we can already talk about the “Roman Republic”.

Rome also saw the rise and fall of some of the greatest emperors in human civilization, such as Julius Caesar, Trajan and Augustus. But over time, the empire of Rome became so vast that it was simply impossible to bring it to uniform rules. But eventually the Roman Empire was overrun by millions of barbarians from the north and east of Europe.

Persian civilization

Period: 550 BC - 465 BC
Place of origin: Egypt in the west to Turkey in the north and through Mesopotamia to the Indus River in the east.
Current location: Modern day Iran

There was a time when the ancient Persian civilization was, in fact, the most powerful empire in the world. Although only ruling for a little over 200 years, the Persians captured lands that covered more than 2 million square miles. From the southern parts of Egypt to parts of Greece, and then east to parts of India, the Persian Empire was known for its military strength and wise rulers. They created such a vast empire only 200 years later (until 550 BC), the Persian Empire (or Persis as it was called then) was previously divided into factions among a number of certain leaders.

But then King Cyrus II, who later became known as Cyrus the Great, came to power and united the entire Persian kingdom. He then went on to conquer ancient Babylon. In fact, its conquest was so rapid that by the end of 533 BC. he had already invaded India, far to the east. And even when Cyrus passed away, his bloodline continued its merciless expansion and even fought in the legendary battle with the brave Spartans.

At one time, ancient Persia ruled all of Central Asia, most of Europe and Egypt. But everything changed when the legendary soldier of Macedon, the great Alexander, brought the entire Persian Empire to its knees and effectively “ended” civilization in 530 BC.

Ancient Greek civilization

Period: 2700 BC - 1500 BC
Starting location: Italy, Sicily, North Africa and as far west as France
Current location: Greece

The ancient Greeks may not have been the oldest civilization, but they are undoubtedly one of the most influential civilizations that has ever existed in the world. Although the rise of ancient Greece originated from the Cycladic and Minoan civilization (2700 BC - 1500 BC), there is evidence of burials discovered in the Franchti Cave in Argolis, Greece, which dates back to 7250 BC.

The history of this civilization is spread over such a huge period of time that historians had to divide it into different periods, the most popular of which were the Archaic, Classical and Hellenistic periods.

These periods also saw many ancient Greeks come into the spotlight - many of them changing the direction of the entire world forever. Many of them still talk about it to this day. The Greeks created the ancient Olympic Games, the concept of democracy and the Senate. They created the basis for modern geometry, biology, physics and much more. Pythagoras, Archimedes, Socrates, Euclid, Plato, Aristotle, Alexander the Great... the books of history are full of names whose inventions, theories, beliefs and heroics had a significant impact on subsequent civilizations.

Chinese civilization

Period: 1600 BC E. - 1046 BC
Starting location: Yellow River and the Yangtze region.
Current location: Country China

Ancient China - also known as Han China is undoubtedly one of the most varied stories about this civilization. The Yellow River Civilization is said to be the cradle of all Chinese civilization, as the earliest dynasties were founded here. It was around 2700 BC that the legendary Yellow Emperor began his reign in a moment that would later lead to the birth of many dynasties that would go on to rule the Chinese mainland.

In 2070 B.C. The Xia dynasty became the first power of all China, as described in ancient historical chronicles. From then on, many dynasties emerged that held control over China at different times until the end of the Qing Dynasty in 1912 with the Xinhai Revolution. And thus ended more than four thousand years of history of ancient Chinese civilization, which also fascinates historians and ordinary people to this day. But this would not have happened before they gave the world some of the most useful inventions and products such as gunpowder, paper, printing, compass, alcohol, cannons and many others.

Mayan civilization

Period: 2600 BC - 900 AD
Place of origin: Around the present day Yucatan
Current location: Yucatan, Quintana Roo, Campeche, Tabasco and Chiapas in Mexico and south through Guatemala, Belize, El Salvador and Honduras

The ancient Mayan civilization flourished in Central America from around 2600 BC and has been much talked about recently due to the timing of their famous calendar.

After the civilization was created, it continued to flourish and become one of the most complex civilizations with a rapidly growing population of 19 million people. By 700 BC. The Mayans had already developed their own way of writing, which they used to create their own solar calendars carved out of stone. According to them, the world was created on August 11, 3114 BC, this is the date from which their calendar starts. And the supposed end was December 21, 2012.

The ancient Mayans were culturally richer compared to many modern civilizations. The Mayans and Aztecs built pyramids, many of which were larger than those in Egypt. But their sudden decline and abrupt end have long been one of the most intriguing mysteries of ancient history: Why did the Mayans, an amazingly sophisticated civilization of more than 19 million people, suddenly collapse sometime in the 8th or 9th century? Although the Mayan people never completely disappeared, their descendants still live throughout Central America.

Ancient Egyptian civilization

Period: 3100-2686
Place of origin: bank of the Nile river
Current location: Egypt

Ancient Egypt is one of the oldest and culturally rich civilizations on this list. The ancient Egyptians are known for their stunning culture, standing pyramids, sphinx, pharaohs and the once magnificent civilization that lay along the banks of the Nile River. The civilization came together around 3150 BC (according to traditional Egyptian chronology) with the political unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under the first pharaoh. But this might not have been possible if early settlers had not appeared around the Nile Valley in early 3500 BC.

The history of ancient Egypt took place in a series of reigns of stable Kingdoms, separated by periods of relative instability known as the intermediate periods: the Old Kingdom of the Early Bronze Age, the Middle Kingdom of the Middle Bronze Age, and the New Kingdom of the Late Bronze Age.

Ancient Egypt gave the world pyramids, mummies that preserve ancient pharaohs to this day, the first of solar calendars, hieroglyphs and much more.

Ancient Egypt reached its apex by the New Kingdom, where pharaohs like Ramesses the Great ruled with such power that another modern civilization, the Nubians, also came under Egyptian rule.

Indus Valley Civilization

Period: 2600 BC -1900 BC
Place of origin: Around the Indus River basins
Current location: Northeast Afghanistan to Pakistan and northwest India

One of the oldest civilizations on this list is the Indus Valley Civilization. It lies at the very cradle of civilization, which arose in the Indus Valley region. This civilization flourished in areas stretching from what is today northeastern Afghanistan to Pakistan and northwestern India.

Along with Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, it was one of the three early civilizations of the Old World, and of the three most widespread - its area is 1.25 million km! Entire populations of people were settled around the basins of the Indus River, one of the major rivers in Asia, and another river called the Ghaggar-Hakra, which once ran through northeastern India and eastern Pakistan.

Also known as the Harappan civilization and the Mohenjo-Daro civilization, named after the excavations where the remains of the civilization were found, the peak phase of this civilization is said to have lasted from 2600 BC until around 1900 BC.

A sophisticated and technologically advanced urban culture is evident in the Indus Valley Civilization, making them the first urban centers in the region. The people of the Indus civilization achieved high precision in measuring length, mass and time. And, based on the artifacts found in the excavations, it is obvious that the culture was quite rich in arts and crafts.

Mesopotamian civilization

Period: 3500 BC -500 BC
Place of origin: northeast, Zagros Mountains, southeast of the Arabian Plateau
Current location: Iran, Syria and Türkiye

And now - the first civilization that ever arose on planet Earth after the evolution of people. The origins of Mesopotamia date back further, and there is no known evidence of any other civilized society before it. The time scale of ancient Mesopotamia is generally around 3300 BC. - 750 BC Mesopotamia is generally credited with being the first place where civilized societies truly began to take shape.

Somewhere around 8000 BC. people found the concept of agriculture and slowly began to domesticate animals both for food purposes and to assist in farming. Previously, all this was what created art. But all this was part of human culture, not human civilization. And then the Mesopotamians rose up, refined, added to, and formalized all of these systems, combining them to form the first civilization. They flourished in the regions of modern Iraq - then known as Babylonia, Sumer and Assyria.

The entire period of human existence, after it emerged from its early stage of development and left the caves that were pretty boring by that time, can be divided into certain stages, each of which will represent a long-existing community of countries and peoples, united by common social, cultural and economic features. Such a separate historical segment is called civilization and carries within itself only its inherent features.

Civilization as universal historical progress

The theories of universal historical progress dominated in the teachings of the most progressive representatives of the 19th century. At the same time, the individual features of the development of individual societies, related to the characteristics of their race, habitat, climate, religious and other factors, were not taken into account. It was assumed that all of humanity was involved in a single one. The history of the civilizations of its individual groups practically faded into the background.

However, by the end of the century, such historical optimism began to decline and gave way to doubts about the reality of universal historical progress. Theories have emerged and gained a large number of followers that connect the development of individual groups of people with the geographical features of their areas of residence and the degree of adaptation to them, as well as with prevailing religious views, traditions, customs, and so on. The concept of “civilization” has acquired a more modern meaning.

Meaning of the term

It was first introduced into use by such thinkers of the 18th century as Voltaire, A.R. Turgot and A. Fergusson. The term comes from the Latin word “civilis”, which means “civil, state”. However, in that era it was given a slightly different, narrower meaning than now. Everything that emerged from the stage of savagery and barbarism, without division into separate stages, was designated as Civilization.

What civilization is in the understanding of modern people was well expressed by the English historian and sociologist Arnold Toynbee. He compared it to a living organism, capable of continuously reproducing itself and going through the path from birth to death, while overcoming the stages of birth, growth, flourishing, decline and death.

A new approach to understanding an old term

At the beginning of the 20th century, modern civilization began to be viewed as the result of the development of its individual local subjects. Scientists have come to the attention of the peculiarities of their social systems, the characteristic features of the people inhabiting certain regions, as well as their interaction in the context of world history.

The stage of civilization formation is common to all peoples without exception, but proceeds differently everywhere. The acceleration or deceleration of its pace depends on a large number of reasons, among which the most important are wars, natural disasters, epidemics, and so on. A common feature of the emergence of all civilizations, their starting point is considered to be the transition of ancient people from hunting and fishing, that is, the consumption of a finished product, to its production, namely agriculture and cattle breeding.

Subsequent stages of development of society

The second stage, which includes the history of civilizations, is characterized by the emergence of pottery production and writing in its early and sometimes primitive forms. Both indicate active progress in which a particular society is involved. The next stage that world civilizations go through is the formation of urban culture and, as a consequence of this, the further intensive development of writing. Based on how quickly the development of these and a number of other factors proceeded, we can conditionally distinguish between progressive and backward peoples.

So, all of the above gives a general idea of what civilization is, what historical progress is and what its main features are. However, it should be noted that in the scientific world there is no single point of view on this issue, since each scientist brings his own, purely personal features to his understanding. Even on the issue of dividing civilizations into agricultural, industrial, and also guided by their geographical location and economic features, there are different points of view.

The emergence of ancient civilizations

One of the controversial issues is the attempt to establish the chronology of the origins of the earliest civilizations known to science. It is generally accepted that they were the city-states of Mesopotamia, which appeared in the valley and Euphrates about five thousand years ago. The birth of the Ancient Egyptian civilization dates back to the same historical period. Somewhat later, the features of civilization were adopted by the peoples inhabiting India, and about a thousand years later it appeared in China. The historical progress of the peoples living in the Balkans at that time gave impetus to the emergence of the ancient Greek states.

All the worlds arose in the valleys of large rivers, such as the Tigris, Euphrates, Nile, Indus, Ganges, Yangtze and so on. They were called “river”, and their appearance was largely due to the need to create numerous irrigation systems in cultivated areas. Climatic conditions were also an important factor. As a rule, the first states appeared in tropical and subtropical zones.

The development of civilization in the coastal areas took place similarly. It also required the organization of joint actions of a large number of people, and the success of navigation contributed to the establishment of cultural and trade ties with other peoples and tribes. It began to play such a significant role in the entire world development and has not lost its relevance to this day.

War between man and nature

The main world civilizations of antiquity developed in conditions of constant struggle with natural disasters and difficulties caused by the landscape of the area. As history shows, people have not always emerged victorious. There are known examples of the death of entire peoples who became victims of raging natural disasters. Suffice it to recall the Cretan-Mycenaean civilization, buried under the ashes of a volcano, and the legendary Atlantis, the reality of whose existence many prominent scientists are trying to prove.

Types of civilizations

The typology of civilizations, that is, their division into types, is carried out depending on the meaning given to this concept itself. However, in the scientific world there are such terms as river, sea and mountain civilizations. These include, respectively, Ancient Egypt, Phenicia and a number of states of Pre-Columbian America. Continental civilizations are also included in a separate group, which, in turn, are divided into nomadic and sedentary. These are just the main sections of the typology. In fact, each of the listed species has many more divisions.

Historical stages of development of societies

The history of civilizations shows that having originated and gone through a period of development, often accompanied by wars of conquest as a result of which, oddly enough, the management system and structure of society are improved, they reach their heyday and maturity. This stage is fraught with a certain danger due to the fact that, as a rule, the process of rapid qualitative development gives way to the preservation of conquered positions, which inevitably leads to stagnation.

This is not always recognized by society. More often it perceives this state as the highest point of its development. In practice, this turns into a political and economic crisis, which results in internal unrest and interstate clashes. Typically, stagnation permeates areas such as ideology, culture, economics and religion.

And finally, the consequence of stagnation is the destruction of civilization and its death. At this stage, there is an aggravation of social and political conflicts, which, against the backdrop of weakening power structures, has disastrous consequences. With rare exceptions, all former civilizations have passed this thorny path.

The only exceptions can be those peoples and states that disappeared from the face of the Earth due to purely external reasons beyond their control. For example, the Hyksos invasion destroyed Ancient Egypt, and the Spanish conquistadors put an end to the states of Mesoamerica. However, even in these cases, carrying out a deep analysis, one can find signs of the same stagnation and decay in the last stages of the life of disappeared civilizations.

Change of civilizations and their life cycle

Looking carefully at the history of mankind, one cannot help but notice that the death of a civilization does not always entail the destruction of a people and its culture. Sometimes a process occurs in which the collapse of one civilization is the birth of another. The most striking example is the Greek civilization, which gave way to the Roman, and was replaced by the modern civilization of Europe. This gives grounds to talk about the ability of the life cycle of civilizations to repeat and self-reproduce. This feature underlies the progressive development of humanity and inspires hope in the irreversibility of the process.

Summarizing the description of the stages of development of states and peoples, it should be noted that not every civilization goes through the above periods. What is the natural course of history, for example, in the face of natural disasters that can change its course in the blink of an eye? It is enough to recall at least the Minoan civilization, which was in its heyday and destroyed by the Santorini volcano.

Eastern form of civilization

It is also important to take into account the fact that the characteristics of a civilization often depend on its geographical location. In addition, the national characteristics of the people who make up its population are of great importance. For example, the civilization of the East is full of unique, unique features. This term covers states located not only in Asia, but also in Africa and the vast expanses of Oceania.

Eastern civilization is heterogeneous in its structure. It can be divided into Middle Eastern-Muslim, Indian-South Asian and Chinese-Far Eastern. Despite the individual characteristics of each of them, they contain many common features that give grounds to talk about a single Eastern model of social development.

In this case, the common features are such characteristic features as the unlimited power of the bureaucratic elite not only over the peasant communities under its subordination, but also over representatives of the private sector: among them artisans, moneylenders and all kinds of traders. The power of the supreme ruler of the state is considered given from God and is sanctified by religion. Almost every eastern civilization has these features.

Western model of society

A completely different picture appears on the European continent and in America. Western civilization is, first of all, a product of assimilation, processing and transformation of the achievements of previous cultures that have gone down in history. In its arsenal are religious impulses borrowed from the Jews, philosophical breadth inherited from the Greeks and a high degree of state organization based on Roman law.

The entire modern Western civilization is built on the philosophy of Christianity. On this basis, starting from the Middle Ages, human spirituality was formed, resulting in its highest form, called humanism. Also, the most important contribution of the West to the development of world progress is science, which changed the entire course of global history, and the implementation of institutions of political freedom.

Western civilization is characterized by rationality, but, unlike the Eastern form of thinking, it is characterized by consistency, on the basis of which mathematics was developed and It also became the basis for developing the legal foundations of the state. Its main principle is the dominance of individual rights over the interests of the collective and society. Throughout world history, there has been a confrontation between Eastern and Western civilizations.

The phenomenon of Russian civilization

When in the 19th century, in countries inhabited by Slavic peoples, the idea of their unification on the basis of ethnic and linguistic community was born, the term “Russian civilization” appeared. He was especially popular among Slavophiles. This concept focuses attention on the original features of Russian culture and history, emphasizes their difference from the cultures of the West and East, and puts their national origin at the forefront.

One of the theorists of Russian civilization was the famous historian and sociologist of the 19th century N.Ya. Danilevsky. In his writings, he predicted that the West, which, in his opinion, had passed the apogee of its development, would soon decline and die out. Russia, in his eyes, was the bearer of progress, and the future belonged to it. Under her leadership, all Slavic peoples were to achieve cultural and economic prosperity.

Among outstanding literary figures, Russian civilization also had its ardent supporters. Suffice it to recall F.M. Dostoevsky with his idea of a “God-bearing people” and the opposition of the Orthodox understanding of Christianity to the Western one, in which he saw the coming of the Antichrist. It is also impossible not to mention L.N. Tolstoy and his idea of a peasant community, entirely based on Russian tradition.

For many years, debates have not subsided about which civilization Russia belongs to with its bright originality. Some argue that its uniqueness is only external, and in its depths it is a manifestation of global processes. Others, insisting on its originality, emphasize its Eastern origin and see in it an expression of the East Slavic community. Russophobes generally deny the uniqueness of Russian history.

A special place in world history

Leaving these discussions aside, we note that many prominent historians, philosophers, theologians and religious figures, both of our time and of past years, assign a very specific place to Russian civilization, singling it out in a special category. Among those who were the first to emphasize the uniqueness of the paths of their fatherland in world history were such outstanding personalities as I. Aksakov, F. Tyutchev, I. Kireev and many others.

The position of the so-called Eurasians on this issue deserves attention. This philosophical and political trend appeared in the twenties of the last century. In their opinion, Russian civilization is a mixture of European and Asian features. But Russia synthesized them, turning them into something original. In it they were not reduced to a simple set of borrowings. Only in such a coordinate system, say Eurasians, can we consider the historical path of our Motherland.

Historical progress and civilization

What is a particular civilization outside of the historical context that determines its forms? Based on the fact that it cannot but be localized in time and space, for a comprehensive study it is necessary, first of all, to draw up the most complete picture of the historical period of its existence. However, history is not something static, motionless and changing only at certain moments. She is constantly on the move. Therefore, any of the world civilizations under consideration is like a river - despite the similarity of its external outlines, it is constantly new and every moment filled with different content. It can be full-flowing, carrying its waters for many millennia, or it can become shallow and disappear without a trace.

The history of mankind can be compared to the biography of one family - over time, some members of the household leave, others are born, and everyone lives life in their own way, leaving certain memories of themselves. In the case of the global “family” of homo sapiens, entire civilizations act as its members - some of them manage to exist for thousands of years, and some are not allowed to last even several centuries, but one way or another, the place of the lost civilization is immediately taken by the next one - in This is the great justice and the great meaning of History.

1. Olmec civilization

The Olmecs are one of the oldest civilizations in Central America, with an outstanding culture and an unusually high level of development of science and technology for its time.

The “calling card” of the Olmecs are considered to be giant sculptures in the form of heads, located in modern Mexico. The heyday of the Olmec state occurred between 1500 and 400 BC; according to historians, this people achieved impressive successes in architecture, agriculture, medicine, writing and other branches of knowledge. The Olmecs had a fairly accurate calendar and a mathematical system that used the number “0,” which can be considered a real breakthrough.

Having existed for more than a thousand years, the Olmec civilization, for reasons still unclear, fell into decline, but other states arose on its ruins, such as...

2. Aztec Empire

The “Golden Age” of Aztec civilization is considered to be the period between 1428 and 1521 - at this time the empire covered vast territories where, according to some estimates, about 5 million people lived, while the population of its capital, Tenochtitlan, was located on the site of modern Mexico City was approximately 200 thousand.

The Aztecs borrowed a lot from the Olmec civilization, including religious beliefs, ritual games, traditions of human sacrifice, language, calendar and some achievements of science and culture. The Aztec Empire was one of the richest and most highly developed states of pre-Columbian America - it is enough to mention at least the complex aqueducts they built, designed to irrigate the famous floating gardens.

The isolation of the Aztec state from the rest of the world, and at the same time the state itself, was ended when the detachment of the Spanish conquistador Hernan Cortes was allowed to enter Tenochtitlan. One can imagine the surprise of the Spaniards, who were expecting a meeting with the “primitive barbarians” - a huge, rich city with wide streets and stunningly beautiful architecture appeared before their eyes.

Probably, greed, the envy of the Spaniards for the wealth of the townspeople, as well as European diseases and the modern weapons of the conquistadors led to the destruction

the Aztec state and the genocide of a great people, and just a few years later another Indian civilization fell victim to European invaders...

3. Inca Empire

The Inca state, which occupied the territory of modern Peru, Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia and Ecuador, existed for more than three centuries - from the beginning of the 13th to the end of the 16th, when the conquistadors came to the country under the command of the Spaniard Francisco Pizarro.

The capital of the Inca Empire was located in the mountains, on the site of the modern city of Cusco. Thanks to the unusually high level of technological development at that time, the Incas were able to build an effective agricultural system, turning mountain slopes into fertile fields and developing technologies for their irrigation. The highest skill of the Inca architects is evidenced by the buildings of the city of Machu Picchu and other structures that have survived to this day. Based on astronomical observations and their mathematical system, the Incas created an accurate calendar, they developed their own writing, and achieved notable successes in medicine and other sciences. Scientists are still puzzling how a people who did not have modern tools and devices managed to build architectural and engineering masterpieces.

Acquaintance with European civilization became a real tragedy for the Incas (as well as for other indigenous peoples of the American continent) - most of the population was destroyed by European diseases, the weapons of the conquistadors and the outbreak of civil strife between various tribes, and their cities were plundered.

This is the sad fate of a once powerful country, the size of which was comparable to the largest Eurasian states, for example, what we call...

4. Persian Empire

For several centuries, the Persian Empire was one of the main players on the world political stage. Possessing outstanding technologies and knowledge, the Persians built a network of roads unique in its branching and quality that connected the most developed cities of the empire, developed a sewerage system that had no analogues, and created an alphabet and numbers. They were the first to use the assimilation of conquered peoples instead of their extermination, trying to make the religious and cultural traditions of foreigners part of their culture, thanks to which they managed to create one of the largest and most influential states on the planet, such examples in the history of mankind are quite rare and one of them...

5. Macedonian Empire

This state, by and large, owes its existence to one person - Alexander the Great. His empire covered parts of modern Greece and Egypt, the territory of the former Achaemenid power and part of India. Alexander managed to subjugate many countries thanks to his talent as a commander and the high level of training of his troops. An important role in the creation of the empire was also played by the assimilation of the peoples of the occupied territories - marriages between soldiers of the Macedonian army and representatives of the local population.

After the death of Alexander the Great, the empire lasted for about three centuries. As a result of numerous conflicts between the heirs of the legendary conqueror, the country fell apart and most of it became part of another great state called...

6. Roman Empire

Roman civilization originated in city-states on the territory of modern Italy, the main of which was, of course, Rome. The empire was formed under the strong influence of Greek civilization - the Romans borrowed from the Greeks many ideas of state and social structure, which they were able to successfully implement.

knowledge, as a result of which one of the greatest empires in human history appeared on the world map. Under the rule of the Caesars, the disparate regions of Italy united, and due to the successes of Roman military leaders, the young state gradually turned into the most influential empire in the world, which included modern Italy, Spain, Greece, France, large parts of Germany and Great Britain, regions in North Africa (including - Egypt) and vast territories in the Middle East.

The Romans' victorious march around the world was hindered by the collapse of the empire into western and eastern parts. The history of the Western Roman Empire ended in 476, the Eastern Roman Empire, which is also called the Byzantine Empire, lasted almost a thousand years longer - until 1453.

The united Roman Empire was one of the largest states in the entire history of mankind; only a few giants surpassed it in size, for example...

7. Mongol Empire

The state, which covered the most extensive contiguous territory in history, was born at the behest of the great Mongol commander, whose name became practically synonymous with a successful policy of conquest. The history of Genghis Khan's empire lasted just over a century and a half, from 1206 to 1368 - during this time, the territories of modern Russia, India, China and some countries of Eastern Europe came under the rule of the first great khan and his successors, a total area of occupied lands was about 33 million km2. The military successes of the Mongols are explained, first of all, by the widespread use of cavalry - their opponents simply did not have a chance to cope with countless hordes of skilled horsemen who appeared as if from nowhere and smashed the infantry to smithereens.

The death of the Great Khan Ogedei, the third son of Genghis Khan, kept the Mongols from continuing their aggressive policy. Who knows - if not for a coincidence, perhaps Western Europe would have become acquainted with all the “delights” of the Mongol invasion. During the power struggle of several Mongol political leaders, the empire split into four states - the Golden Horde, the Ilkhanate in the Middle East, the Yuan Empire in China and the Chagatai ulus in Central Asia.

It is worth noting that the Mongols were not the brainless barbarians that Western historians often try to present them in their works. In the occupied territories, they introduced laws that were quite humane in relation to the indigenous population - for example, it was strictly forbidden to persecute local residents for their religious beliefs. Such a progressive domestic policy would be worth learning from, for example, the elite of such a state as...

8. Ancient Egypt

Located in the Nile River valley, the state existed in various forms for more than 4 thousand years. Countless studies, thousands of books, feature films and documentaries have been devoted to the history of Egyptian civilization, but scientists continue to argue about the technologies and knowledge of the ancient Egyptians, which allowed them to create, for example, the famous pyramids of Giza and other wonders of architectural thought.

The heyday of Ancient Egypt is characterized by the highest level of development of traditional religion, Egyptian language, medicine, architecture, agricultural technology, mathematics and various arts. Egypt is one of the three most ancient states on the planet, including Sumerian and

Indus civilization, the latter is also called...

9. Harappan civilization

The Indus civilization is not nearly as famous as Ancient Egypt, although both states were formed at approximately the same time - in the middle of the fourth millennium BC. The period of existence of the civilization, located on the territory of modern Pakistan, covers more than one and a half thousand years.

One of the distinctive features of the Harappan civilization can be considered the peaceful, creative policy of the authorities, both internal and external.

While the rulers of other countries waged wars and intimidated their own citizens, considering violence to be the main tool for strengthening power, the top officials of the Harappan state directed all their efforts to developing society, strengthening the economy and improving technology.

Archaeologists claim that during the study of the settlements of the Indus civilization, they discovered only a small amount of weapons, while there were completely no human remains with signs of violent death, which allows us to conclude that the Indus state was peaceful.

The Harappans lived in clean, well-planned cities with sewerage and water supply systems, and almost every house had a bathroom and toilet. Unfortunately, we know little about the Indus civilization, but the available information indicates that it was one of the most progressive countries of that era.

Goodwill and peacefulness were also characteristic of the people who created the state on the Caribbean islands - we know them under the name ...

10. Arawak

Arawak is the collective name for a whole group of peoples who inhabited the islands of the Caribbean Sea and the northern part of South America. It was the Arawaks who were the first Indian tribes to meet Christopher Columbus upon his arrival in the New World. According to various estimates, during the first expedition

Columbus, the number of island Arawaks ranged from 300 to 400 thousand people, although some sources give other figures - up to several million.

Possessing a developed culture, the Arawaks were very friendly to each other and to strangers - according to the testimony of expedition members, the aborigines shouted to European ships approaching their islands: “Tainos!”, which translated from the local dialect means “peace.” This is where the second common name for the island Arawak tribes came from - Taino.

The Tainos were engaged in trade, agriculture, fishing and hunting; unlike many other Indian tribes, they practically did not participate in military conflicts. The only people with whom the Arawaks were at enmity were the cannibals who lived in the territory of the modern state of Puerto Rico.

Arawak civilization is characterized by a highly organized structure of society, its hierarchy, as well as the population’s commitment to universal human values - for example, Arawak women had the right to refuse a man to marry, which was unheard of for the Indians, as well as for many Europeans of that time.

With the arrival of the conquerors, the Arawakan state quickly fell into decline - the population decreased significantly due to the lack of immunity to diseases of the Old World and armed conflicts with the Spaniards. Currently, the Tainos are considered extinct, although on some islands of the Caribbean the remains of the culture of this once highly developed civilization have been preserved.

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