Compositional and structural features of the text. Composition of the text: units, principles, techniques. The concept of composition. Composition of texts of different styles

The question of the “Words” genre is complicated. Attempts to declare it an epic or oratorical word, the desire to find in it traces of the Bulgarian, Byzantine or Scandinavian tradition, etc., are met with a lack of analogies, reliable facts, and, above all, the striking originality of the “Word”, which does not allow its unconditional identification with one or another another genre category.

The most well-reasoned are the hypothesis of I. P. Eremin, who considered “The Lay” as a monument of solemn eloquence, and the point of view of A. N. Robinson and D. S. Likhachev, who compare “The Lay” with the genre of the so-called chansons de geste (literally “songs”) about exploits"). Researchers have already drawn attention to the similarity of the Lay, for example, with the Song of Roland.

Characterizing the works of this genre, D. S. Likhachev writes that such an “epic is full of calls for the defense of the country... Its characteristic “direction”: the call comes as if from the people (hence the folklore origin), but it is addressed to the feudal lords - golden word Svyatoslav, and hence the book beginning.

The epic combines collectivity and the book principle (elements of oratorical prose), elements of the personal and journalistic principle.” At first glance, the rapprochement of the Lay with chansons de geste is too general, but all attempts to define the genre of the Lay in a different way inevitably led to even greater stretches and distortions of the stylistic, figurative and compositional structure of the monument.

So, the plot of “The Lay” is inspired by the events of 1185, and the plot is determined by the author’s desire to teach an instructive lesson to contemporary princes using the example tragic fate Igor. What is it artistic structure works?

Compositionally, the Lay is divided into three parts: introduction, main (narrative) part and conclusion. It is usually believed that in the introduction the author contrasts his artistic system with the traditional one, embodied, for example, in Boyan’s songs.

But it is unlikely that in Rus' of the 12th century, in an era of reverent attitude towards literary etiquette and genre canons, an author who decided to break tradition would openly declare his innovation. Another thing is more likely: the introduction, as I. P. Eremin rightly noted, is of a purely rhetorical nature and, “in prefacing it to his work, the author of The Lay acted as an experienced master, a writer of a great literary culture.

His introduction pursues a very specific goal: to emphasize the “solemn” orientation of his work, to set the reader up for a “high,” unusual structure of thought, corresponding to the seriousness of the content of “The Lay.”

I. P. Eremin further emphasizes that in some genres of ancient Russian literature - oratorical “words”, lives - the introduction was a necessary, etiquette element of the composition of the work. As for the “polemic” between the author of “The Lay” and Boyan, then, perhaps, the discussion here is not at all about the form of the narrative and not about the genre, but about the theme.

The author of the Lay does not want, like Boyan, to glorify the glorious deeds of the past, but intends to narrate “according to the epics of this time.” In this, and only in this, perhaps, the author of the Lay sees his difference from Boyan and justifies his departure from tradition to the reader; but he, like Boyan, intends to broadcast “old words of difficult stories.”

The main “narrative” part of the “Tale” is not just a story about events - a kind of analogy to the chronicle narration: “... the speaker is not so much interested in facts,” wrote I. P. Eremin, “but in showing his attitude towards them, not so much in the external sequence of events how much is their inner meaning?

Episodes correlated with actual events are interspersed with literary and fictional scenes (such as, for example, Svyatoslav’s prophetic dream and his “golden word” to the princes; depiction of grief European peoples, who learned about Igor’s defeat, Yaroslavna’s cry, the conversation between Gza and Konchak, etc.), and even more often with digressions: historical excursions or author’s maxims.

But each such digression testifies not only to the author’s broad historical outlook, but also to his ability to find analogies in sometimes distant events, to easily change the flow of the narrative, while revealing extensive erudition and stylistic skill.

The conclusion of the “Tale” is an example of “glory,” perhaps typical of the epic genre, the existence of which in Rus' we learn from indirect evidence from other sources.

The poetics of “The Lay” are so unique, its language and style are so original, that at first glance it may seem as if “The Lay” is completely outside the sphere of literary traditions of the Russian Middle Ages.

In reality this is not the case. In the depiction of the Russian princes, and especially the main characters of the Lay - Igor and Vsevolod, we will find features of the epic style familiar to us from the chronicles and the style of monumental historicism. No matter how condemnable Igor’s reckless campaign may be, the hero himself remains for the author the embodiment of princely virtues.

Igor is courageous, filled with a “military spirit,” a thirst to “drink with the helmet of the Great Don,” and a sense of military honor are overshadowed by an ominous omen—an eclipse of the sun. Equally chivalrous are Igor’s brother Vsevolod and his Kuryan warriors: they “wore under trumpets, were nurtured under helmets, were fed from the end of a spear” and in battles seek “honor for themselves, and glory for the prince.”

But unlike the chronicle, in the Lay, as a poetic monument, two planes, as it were, coexist. The “realistic” (and essentially etiquette) depiction of characters and events is constantly correlated with the description of the semi-mystical world of forces hostile to the “Russians”: this is an ominous omen - an eclipse of the sun, and the forces of nature hostile to Igor’s army (birds, animals, the night itself, which “ wake up the bird with a thunderstorm"), and, finally, the fantastic Div, the Virgo-Resentment, personified troubles - Karna and Zhlya. D. S. Likhachev once remarked that “ art system“The Words” are all built on contrasts.”

One of these contrasts is the opposition of metaphoric images: sun, light and darkness (night, dark color). This opposition is traditional for ancient Russian literature and folklore. In the Lay it is repeatedly realized in the most various images: Igor is the “bright light”, and Konchak is the “black raven”, on the eve of the battle “black clouds are coming from the sea, they want to cover the 4 suns.”

IN prophetic dream Svyatoslav sees that that night, from the evening on, he was covered with “black papoloma”, blue wine was poured for him, and “beads of lies” were played all night. The boyars’ response to Svyatoslav is constructed in the same metaphorical system: “It was dark on the 3rd day, two suns were dim, both crimson pillars were extinguished... the young month Oleg and Svyatoslav were dragged by darkness. On the river on Kayal, darkness covered the light.” But when Igor returns to Rus', “the sun is shining in the sky” again.

It was already noted above that many scenes of “The Lay” have symbolic meaning, including such seemingly “naturalistic” sketches as a story about wolves howling through ravines, or birds flying from oak grove to oak grove in anticipation of prey on the battlefield.

The actual landscape sketches in the Lay are extremely laconic: “the night has been darkening for a long time, the dawn has sunk, darkness has covered the fields,” “the earth is not here, the rivers flow muddily, the fields are covered with weeds,” etc.

At the same time, it is characteristic that in the Lay, as in other ancient Russian monuments, there is no “static” landscape, a simple description of nature: the world appears before the reader not so much in its motionless forms, but in its actions, phenomena and processes. The author of “The Lay” does not tell us what the objects surrounding his heroes are, but draws attention to what is happening around him, talks about action, and does not describe pictures.

The Word does not say that the night is light or dark, it fades; the color of the river water is not described, but it is said that “the rivers flow muddy”, and Sula no longer “flows with silver streams”; the banks of the Donets are not depicted, but it is said that the Donets lays for Igor green grass on its silver shores, clothes it with warm mists under the shade of a green tree, etc.

Another characteristic feature of the poetics of “The Lay” is the author’s digressions. The author interrupts the story of Igor’s battle with the Polovtsians at the climax in order to remember “the square of Olgova, Olga Svyatslavlich.”

Similarly, between the story of “the fall of Igor’s banners” and the description of the mournful moment of Igor’s captivity (“The prince Igor came out of a golden saddle, and into a koscheyvo saddle”) there is an extensive reflection by the author on the consequences of Igor’s defeat: “It’s already a sad time, brethren.” got up."

The disasters of the Russian lands, which were subjected to new Polovtsian raids, and even the sadness that gripped distant countries - the “Germans” and the Venetians, the Byzantines and the “Moravians”, are spoken of earlier than the dream of Svyatoslav, which, judging by its symbolism, the prince dreamed precisely in the fateful night after Igor's defeat (or even on the eve of it). So, everything is displaced, everything is symbolic, everything serves the “concept of the plot”, and not the desire for documentary storytelling.

Having understood these features of the plot structure of the “Tale”, we will see how useless it is to speculate about whether the Polovtsians actually collected tribute “by white and wildflower”, whether it was advisable to invite Vsevolod the Big Nest to the aid of Igor, who was already striving to intervene in southern Russian affairs , we will understand that we should not judge the power of Yaroslav Osmomysl on the basis of the “Word”, etc.

The “Word” is epic, not documentary, it is full of symbolism, and therefore cannot resemble a chronicle narrative, where a deviation from documentary (in depicting modern events within the limits of weather records!) can be justified either by the chronicler’s ignorance or by his political bias.

What has been said here testifies to the unconditionally bookish nature of the Lay. But another, folklore element also coexists harmoniously with it. This element is reflected in the elements of popular lament (the lament of Yaroslavna, the lament of the wives of Russian soldiers who fell in Igor’s campaign, the lament of Rostislav’s mother. The author of the “Tale” means lamentation when he speaks of the groans of Kyiv and Chernigov and the entire Russian land after Igor's defeat).

Why did The Lay, whose literary merits were so highly valued in modern times, go unnoticed in modern times? ancient Russian literature? True, in early XIV V. an extract from the “Lay” was made by the Pskov scribe Domid (Diomid), who rewrote the “Apostle”, and a hundred years later the author of “Zadonshchina” made the “Lay” the basis of the poetic structure of his work, but these responses are too insignificant, compared with the literary merits of the monument, how we were able to appreciate them in modern times.

The point, apparently, is that the high political and moral potential of the “Lay” very soon lost its relevance: after the Mongol-Tatar invasion, it was too late to remember the Polovtsians and call on the princes for a united rebuff to the nomads; secondly, we should not forget about the genre the originality of the “Lay”, which also could not contribute to its popularity in the “etiquette” literature of that time.

And finally, the last, perhaps the most important: “The Word” appeared on the eve of the defeat of Southern Rus' by Batu; in the flames of fires the book treasures of precisely those cities where copies of the “Word” most likely could have been found were lost: Kyiv, Chernigov, Novgorod-Seversky.

Perhaps only an accident saved the “Slovo” for us: one of the copies of the monument was taken to the north (to Pskov, where the scribe Domid saw it), and, perhaps, the text that was read in Musin-Pushkin ultimately goes back to this list collection.

History of Russian literature: in 4 volumes / Edited by N.I. Prutskov and others - L., 1980-1983.

Features of the genre and composition of “The Lay of Igor’s Campaign.”

“The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” is a work structured and created by the author according to the laws of a special rhythm, its own order. It consists in a certain alternation of unstressed and stressed syllables. Therefore, the narrative is smooth, “foldable,” as the author’s contemporaries would say.

The genre of the work is a military story. Given the very high poetic merits of the text, the work could be called a poem.

In artistic terms, it should be noted the closeness of the work to folklore, to the foundations of oral folk art.

The features that make The Lay resemble an epic are the following. This is the wide scope of events, the heroic characters of the main characters, the beauty of poetic language (for example, constant epithets), a deep and wise idea of ​​​​unity of Russian princes in view of the threat from the outside.

What are the features of the composition “The Lay of Igor’s Campaign”?

The first part is the exposition; in it the author addresses the reader and declares what his creative intent is. He intends to create his creation “according to epics,” i.e. based on historically reliable sources. He does not follow Boyan's plans, legendary singer, who in his chants primarily sought to glorify the Russian princes.

The introduction (it represents the beginning of the work) tells how Prince Igor and his army go on a campaign against the Polovtsians from Novgorod Seversky. An eclipse of the sun, a sad omen, does not stop the brave. The warriors hear the call of their beloved prince: “It’s better to be killed than captured!” - and are ready for military exploits.

Increasing action. The foot and horse regiments of the squad enter the southern lands, increasingly moving away from their native borders, leaving everything that was dear and cherished for each of them: their homes, relatives and friends.

“Oh Russian land! You're already over the hill! - this exclamation filled with melancholy sounds like a refrain.

The first victorious meeting with the Cumans is also an element of increasing action.

The fate of Igor's comrades in captivity among the Polovtsians and his subsequent escape from captivity are tragic.

The denouement that crowns the work is presented by the author to the reader in bright colors, like a solemn hymn. Igor returns to his native land, and Kievan Rus, it is people and nature that forgives him for his mistaken step; she takes him into the close, familiar element for him.

Composition is the structure, arrangement and relationship of the constituent parts of the text, determined by its content, issues, genre and purpose.

The composition of a text is a way of constructing it, connecting its parts, facts, and images.

The famous Roman scientist Marcus Fabius Quintilian is credited with developing the theory of speech composition. Quintilian identified eight parts in the speaker's speech. The composition of the speech he developed became part of the practice of later rhetoric.

So, eight parts of the composition according to Quintilian.

1. Appeal. Its purpose is to attract the attention of the audience and endear it to the speaker.

2. Naming the topic. The speaker names what he will talk about, primes the audience for the subject, forces them to remember what they know, and prepares them to delve into the subject.

3. Narration consists of a description of the history of the subject (how the question that needs to be resolved arose, and how the matter itself developed).

4. Description. A story about what things are like at the moment.

5. Proof consists of logical arguments justifying the solution to a problem.

6. Refutation. Proof by contradiction. A different point of view on the subject is allowed, which the speaker refutes.

7. Appeal. Appeal to the feelings of listeners. The goal is to evoke an emotional response from the audience. It ranks second to last in speech structure because people are generally more likely to make judgments based on emotion rather than logic.

8. Conclusion. A brief summary of everything said and conclusions on the case under discussion.

• linear composition is a sequential presentation of facts and events and is usually built on a chronological basis (autobiography, report);

• stepped - involves an accentuated transition from one position to another (lecture, report),

• parallel - is based on a comparison of two or more provisions, facts, events (for example, school essays, the topics of which are

“Chatsky and Molchalin”, “Onegin and Lensky”, “Larina’s Sisters”

• discrete - involves the omission of certain moments in the presentation of events. This complex type of organization is characteristic of literary texts. (For example, such a decision is often at the heart of detective stories);

• ring composition – contains a repetition of the beginning and ending of the text. This type of structure makes it possible to return to what has already been said in the beginning at a new level of understanding the text.

So, for example, the incomplete repetition of the beginning in A. Blok’s poem “Night, street, lantern, pharmacy” makes it possible to comprehend what the poet said as a vital contradiction to the words “And everything will repeat as before” at the end of the text.);

• contrasting - based on a sharp contrast between two parts of the text.

Genre types of composition

Depending on the genre of the text, it can be:

• tough- mandatory for all texts of the genre (certificates, information notes, statements, memos);
• variable- the approximate order of arrangement of parts of the text is known, but the author has the opportunity to vary it (textbook, answer in class, letter);
• non-rigid— presupposing sufficient freedom for the author, despite the fact that he is guided by existing examples of the genre (story, essay, essay);

In the texts:

• built on the basis of combining elements, a linear, stepped, parallel, concentric composition is used,
• in literary texts its organization is often more complex - it builds the time and space of a work of art in its own way.

Our short presentation on this topic

Materials are published with the personal permission of the author - Ph.D. O.A. Mazneva (see “Our Library”)

Composition– structure, location and relationship of its components, determined by its content, issues, genre and purpose.

Text composition– this is a way of constructing it, connecting its parts, facts, images.

Very often, the title serves as the key to understanding the entire text, since the title attracts, prepares the perception of the material itself, places emphasis or intrigues.

Most texts compositionally consist of three parts: introduction (beginning), main part and ending.

Introduction(beginning) usually expresses the key idea of ​​the statement. In the text system, this is the most independent, most significant sentence or sentences. The function of introducing a new thought does not allow the beginning to contain substitute words (pronouns or pronominal adverbs) or to represent incomplete sentences. All its members, as a rule, are expressed in lexically complete words. Since the beginning expresses a new thought, it seems to be syntactically open, not closed, it seems to invite you to continue reading and see how the thought that is presented in it in a concentrated form unfolds and reveals itself. The opening groups around itself all other sentences that to some extent depend on it. However, the independence of the beginning is relative: it not only forms the text, subordinating all subsequent sentences, but also depends on them, since they rely on it and develop its thought.

Main part consists of complete sentences connected to each other and to the beginning by a chain or parallel connection. The composition of this part should be thoughtful.

Ending sums up what was said earlier. Often the ending is a summary sentence with a summary word. There may also be introductory words indicating completeness, completeness, complete exhaustion of thought (finally, so, therefore, thus, in one word). There are other grammatical means of formalizing the ending, for example the conjunction and, which can open the last sentence of the text or close a series of homogeneous members in it.

Types of text composition:

1) Linear composition - a sequential presentation of facts and events; usually built on a chronological basis (autobiography, report).

2) Step composition - involves an accentuated transition from one position to another (lecture, report).

3) Concentric composition - gives the author the opportunity to move from one position to another with a return to the already given positions (like a spiral), in this case, what is already known to the reader or listener is emphasized, and something new is added to this known, this type of composition contributes to a good assimilation of the text .

4) Parallel - based on a comparison of two or more provisions, facts, events (for example, school essays on the topics “Chatsky and Molchalin”, “Onegin and Lensky”).

5) Discrete - involves skipping individual moments in the presentation of events; this is a rather complex type of composition, characteristic of literary texts (often such a composition is the basis of detective stories).

6) Ring – contains a repetition of the beginning and ending of the text; This type of composition makes it possible to return to what has already been said in the beginning at a new level of understanding the text.

7) Contrasting - based on a sharp contrast between two parts of the text.

It is quite clear that the composition of the text as a whole, its construction is determined by the general concept, the type of text and genre and stylistic features.

The composition is based on one or another constructive techniques– ways in which the logic of relationships between parts of the text is contained. Let us comment on the features of the techniques that are most often found in works and which you yourself could use when writing texts.

1) If parts of the text are opposed to each other, then the technique of contrast is used in the composition. Lermontov’s poem “I will not humiliate myself before you” is based on this technique.

2) The dilemma as a constructive device is also quite often found in texts of different genres. The essence of the technique is to choose between two opposite positions (Hamlet’s famous monologue).

3) The question-and-answer technique (when the author himself asks a question and answers it himself) is necessary to attract the attention of the addressee, caused by the desire to force the reader or listener to first answer the question and then compare it with the author’s answer.

4) The framing technique, when the first and last phrases of a part of the text are the same or almost the same, contributes to greater expressiveness of the text.

5) The enumeration technique is used to strengthen and highlight logical relationships in the text.

6) No less in demand is a technique called concretization; its essence is the use of examples and evidence to confirm ideas.

7) The composition of the text can also be built on the technique of parallelism.

8) In some texts you can observe a technique called paradox, built on a deliberate violation of logic.

The skillful use of constructive techniques makes the text more understandable, convincing and memorable.

Basically, the concept of composition is used to characterize artistic designs. It is determined by the method, worldview, concrete aesthetics, incl. genre tasks that he set. In most cases, the elements of the composition of a work are exposition, plot, development of action, and denouement. An artistic whole can consist not only of one novel, but of a whole cycle, a group of poetic or prose works, united by a common hero, common problems, ideas or place of action (“Belkin’s Tales” by A.S. Pushkin, “Evenings on a Farm near Dikanka” by N.V. Gogol). Linguistic stylistics puts into the concept of “composition” the relationship between the dynamic and static aspects of a work, the process of dismemberment text into specific blocks (paragraphs, chapters), semantic side text. Therefore, there are two types of plans for the compositional construction of a work: logical-compositional and proper-compositional. The first includes structural-semantic and structural-logical aspects, and the second – compositional-substantive and formal-compositional. Composition text is inherent not only in works of art, but also in non-fiction works, and is understood as a sequence of three main parts: introduction, main part and conclusion. The introduction is an introduction to the topic, content text, statement of the problem, presentation of the material. Sometimes the introduction pursues psychological goals (journalism, scientific genres) to capture the readership and establish contact with him. The main part reveals the topic, provides basic information, and solves the assigned problems. What is important here is the relationship between specific and general, specific examples and abstract concepts. In the main part, the author presents the main material, evaluates it, analyzes other people’s judgments, and offers his own understanding of the topic. The result of all that has been said is summed up in the conclusion, where conclusions are formulated and new problems are outlined.

Composition (from Latin compositio - composition, linking, addition) is a connection different parts into a single whole. In our lives, this term occurs quite often, so the meaning varies slightly in different areas of activity.

Instructions

In “composition”, the arrangement and coherence of a work of art, united by the author’s intention. To its elements: parts and chapters, prefaces and scenes, dialogues and monologues, songs, etc. and portraits are also included in the composition. However, it cannot be considered as a sequence of elements; it is an integral system of forms determined by the content of the work

The science of architectural composition is the general laws of constructing a project and the architectural object itself. The composition itself is created by three types of means: the arrangement of volumes in space; relationship, proportions, symmetry, color, scale of architectural volumes and their details; inclusion and use of elements of painting, sculpture, landscape art.

A composition is something that also carries a certain inherent meaning. With the help of sounds, the composer’s internal state, important life events, emotions (joy, sadness, etc.), etc. are conveyed. A variety of techniques that convey certain shades create one holistic composition.

All types of compositions in different areas have their own characteristics, which intersect in one thing: the combination of many components into one whole work that has meaning.

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Reference group - social group, which is a significant standard for a person, a way of organizing both for himself and for others, as well as the starting point for developing value orientations And social norms.

The functions of the reference group are divided into comparative and normative. Normative ones act as a source of norms by which people’s behavior is regulated. They become a guide to solving significant problems. Comparative, in turn, is the standard for the individual with which he identifies himself and the people around him. The same group is capable of being comparative and normative at the same time.

Based on the fact of belonging, reference groups are divided into ideal and presence. Presence is distinguished by the fact that the individual is a member of a group. And the ideal group for him would be one to which he is not a member, but whose views and relationships he is oriented towards in his behavior and assessment of people and significant events.

Ideal group It can be both fictional and real. In a fictional group life ideals and serve as standards of assessment literary heroes, famous historical figures. In any case, he strives to be an adherent of the ideal group.

Negative and positive reference groups are classified according to the individual’s denial or agreement with the values ​​and norms of the group. This means that a person must comply with disapproving assessments from the group to which norms he does not adhere, and vice versa - to receive his own from the one whose norms he is trying to meet.

E.V. Shchedrina developed a special experimental procedure that identifies reference groups - referentometry. It is intended to establish and identify the level of reference of group members for any individual included in it. That is, it determines the circle of people whose opinions the individual considers most significant for himself.

In social science, the concept of a reference group is usually used to explain the socio-psychological mechanisms that are involved in the development of individual value-normative attitudes and the regulation of individual consciousness.

The influence of the reference group is important. Therefore, these groups are identified for the purpose of conducting sociological research, which are associated with the development of effective propaganda and pedagogical influences. Referentometry helps to study the orientation of personality and look for ways for its purposeful formation.

Organizations arose quite a long time ago and over time became more complex, expanded and became increasingly important in the life of human society. In its simplest sense, an organization is a group of people acting to achieve a common goal. For their successful functioning, the group’s activities must be coordinated.

Instructions

Thus, an organization is an association of people whose activities are consciously coordinated to achieve some goal. Organizations can be formal or informal. Formal organizations have the right of legal personality, the purposes of their functioning are enshrined in constituent documents, and the procedure for activity is in the regulations that regulate the rights and obligations of each participant. Formal organizations are either for-profit or non-profit. The purpose of the former is to make a profit. Non-profit organizations don't have their own main goal Receiving a profit. Informal organizations are groups of people that arise spontaneously, whose members interact with each other.

In economics, organization refers only to formal organization. An organization may have more than one goal, but several. Their implementation is ensured through the coordinated functioning of its individual parts. The key goal of any organization, without which its existence is not possible, is its own reproduction. If this goal the organization is suppressed, it can quickly cease to exist.

In the process of functioning, the organization uses resources that it transforms to achieve the desired result. Resources include human resources, capital, material resources and information.

The organization is closely connected with the external environment because it receives resources from it. In addition, in the outside world there are consumers of the goods and services it produces. The external environment of the organization is quite diverse. It includes economic conditions, consumers, legislation, competitors, public views, technology, etc. Wherein external environment practically unaffected by the organization. In this connection, the leaders of the organization have to take into account the impact of these factors on its activities.

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Development is, first of all, any process that is aimed at changing spiritual and material objects in order to improve them. This phenomenon can be observed in all areas of life. After all, where there is no progress and development, regression and degradation occur. This is one of the most important concepts in the entire universe.

Instructions

Development is taking place in almost all areas. For example, there is the development of an organism. It is expressed in qualitative adaptation to the environment and other objects within the system. For example, a newborn is not what the adult world has in store for him. As he receives, one way or another, he develops and adapts to the changes around him. It is impossible for any person to escape this process.

You can also experience not only physical and social development, but also mental development. They all go inextricably with each other. While receiving new information, a person develops memory, thinking, attention, will and emotions. Without these components there would be no species of “homo sapiens”.

Development also refers to economic growth or social progress. It is impossible to maintain demand for goods or services unless it increases. That's what it is main reason constant growth of the macroeconomic system. Also, as knowledge accumulates and new technologies are created, social development occurs. People have more opportunities to realize their potential and the human need to develop. Without this aspect, it is impossible to hope for the improvement of the world.

Development should also include the spread of a process. Examples of such phenomena include bad human habits, diseases, natural disasters, etc. Sometimes these processes happen for people. For example, cancers caused by smoking do not appear overnight. They need a certain amount of time. But this aspect prevents people from feeling the danger of a tragic outcome approaching. Therefore, sometimes, in order to determine the degree of development of the process, it is necessary to use precision instruments (for example, medical ones).

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Tip 6: How to build a love composition historical novels

To love story has not become a dubious story developing against the backdrop of abstract events, it is necessary to thoroughly study the era you are describing, learn about the most influential people of that time and pay attention to little things that seem insignificant at first glance.

Instructions

Choose the country and time period in which the events of your novel will develop. Read history books, study the political and military situation of that period. Remember that the state could have a completely different name at that time.

Read notes from contemporaries or studies by historians dedicated to major political figures, generals, and monarchs who will become participants in your narrative. This will fill the novel interesting descriptions.

Come up with a plot for a novel. A classic love story usually develops as follows. Two young and beautiful people occur in difficult times for the country (region, clan or family). They may love each other at first sight, but perhaps they will hate each other first because they belong to different classes or are scions of warring clans. In any case, you must plan the story in such a way that circumstances and intrigues prevent the lovers from being together. Such obstacles may include war, the engagement of one of the main characters to an influential person, or the status of an illegitimate child. In the end, all troubles will be overcome and the lovers will be reunited. Usually the story ends here.

Maintain a time frame for your story. The events developing in the novel must correspond historical events the period in question.

Consider the status of the woman in a specific time period. It is quite possible that during the times you write about, all the fairer sex were locked up and embroidered tapestries. Therefore, a description of how the main character got on a horse and galloped off to chop down enemies would be inappropriate for one reason - she simply could not know how to get on a horse. Although, of course, there were exceptions.

Complete the novel with authentic descriptions of cities and natural landscapes. To do this, you can turn to the history of a particular settlement, and study the views of the area from photographs, excluding modern buildings from consideration.

Study the features of costumes and clothing of your chosen era. This will make the story more reliable, especially if there are sex scenes in the novel.

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In classical political economy, any product has a dual character, which is determined by the abstract and concrete elements contained in it. It is worth understanding what is meant by these concepts.

Product

Before money exchange appeared, a market seller understood that, for example, he would be given a kilogram of grain or one ax for his fish. It follows from this that one fish, and a kilogram of grain, and one ax have the same exchange value and the amount of social labor that was embedded in all these goods. With the advent of money, each of these goods began to have the same value, but different use value.

The greatest theorist in the formation of the dual nature of labor is Karl Marx. He expressed his theory of political economy in the two-volume work “Capital”.

Abstract work

Modern world Although it prefers the monetary exchange of goods, there are still corners of the Earth where tribes still use natural exchange, valuing goods from the point of view of consumer value.

Specific work

Market commodity relations

The concepts of “farm” and “cut” are practically not found in modern Russian speech today, but they can be found in classical literature. People used these outdated terms back in the time of Gogol, calling them small settlements and private peasant landholdings.

Khutor

The farm was very locality or a separate peasant estate with a separate farm. Usually a hamlet included about ten, which were a separate group that administratively belonged to larger populated areas. Gradually, the hamlets expanded, turning into a village or hamlet, but their name often remained in the name of the settlement.

Estonians called their farmsteads manors, while Poles and residents of some countries in the East and central Europe used the name "folvark".

Each farm could have from one to a hundred households, but there were none - this is what distinguished it from a village, where there could be only ten households, but there was always a presence. The Don and Kuban called a village a settlement on the territory that did not have separate administrative control. Often the population of stanitsa hamlets exceeded the number of the central settlement, the hamlet that emerged. Large hamlets often became autonomous villages with a separate communal territory and an assigned Cossack population.

Cut

The concept of “cut” appeared at the beginning of the 20th century in Russia. It was called a piece of land allocated from the communal land territory, transferred to the peasant for individual use without moving the main estate. Thus, the cut was an economic form of private land ownership with the most compact location. For the first time, legal proceedings between the farm and the cut were carried out in 1906 in normative act, where it was indicated that village communities could move to both the cut-off and household forms of land ownership.

The difference is that the farm could be interstriped, and the cut completely united the allotment plots of the peasants into a common area.

The owner receiving the newly formed plot could independently decide whether to give his land status - allotment or non-allotment. It was important point, since the allotment plot somewhat limited its owner’s disposal. The restrictions made it possible to preserve the peasant land fund from non-agricultural elements penetrating the villages. In addition, the recognition of allotment land freed it from loans, pledges and other financial encumbrances of private owners and creditors - except for the Peasant Land Bank.

A person who decides to become a creator of articles for Internet sites naturally wants to know how much he can earn by doing this type of activity. As a rule, novice authors choose rewriting as the easiest way to create Internet content. But they are faced with the fact that their pay can be very different and depend not on the quality of the work, but on other factors that are difficult for a beginner to take into account.

What is rewriting?

For starters, it’s a good idea to decide. Rewriting is usually called the creation of an article for an online resource based on other materials taken from the Internet or from printed publications.

Currently, the requirements for rewriting are quite high. High-quality rewriting is not just a presentation of the material of the original article in your own words and, moreover, not a primitive replacement of words in the original article with synonyms or rearrangement of their order in a sentence. A rewrite is welcome, when writing which the author used several sources, managed to creatively rework them, and even better - add his own original thoughts and ideas.

But the main requirement for a rewritten article remains uniqueness. This means that the resulting text should not be found on the Internet. It is necessary to check uniqueness using special programs, but the requirements for the degree of uniqueness may be different.

In any case, uniqueness below 80% does not give the right to consider an article suitable for any Internet resource.

Rewrite price

The price for any content is usually set based on the cost of 1000 printed characters.

Some set a price for 1000 characters of printed text, including spaces, but more often there is a fixed price for 1000 characters of printed text, excluding spaces.

But even if you focus on the cost of 1000 characters without spaces, it can vary greatly depending on the desires and capabilities of the customer. So, on content exchanges this price ranges from 10 to 200 or more rubles. Beginners, as a rule, are ready to try their hand even for a minimal fee, but quickly realize that it is impossible to earn any significant amount in this way.

Some customers do not distinguish between an original article and a rewrite, others pay slightly less for a rewrite. The average price for a rewrite is 40-60 rubles. for 1000 printed characters excluding spaces, however, with a certain amount of luck and the right level of skill, you can find a customer who is willing to pay much more for such work, so it is extremely difficult to say exactly how much this or that article will cost.

Another way to try to increase your income by doing rewriting is to put articles up for sale on a content site or on a webmaster forum. But in order to receive high pay, a person needs to establish himself as a high-quality and unique material. No customer will buy expensive articles from a person whose capabilities and abilities he does not know.

In any case, only competent, unique material will be paid for, regardless of whether it is a rewrite or an original article. For an illiterate, difficult to read, non-unique text, the author risks not getting a penny.

The water-cement ratio primarily determines the strength of concrete. In order to find out how much liquid is needed in a particular solution, you should pay attention to the quality of the cement, the type of aggregate, its cleanliness and humidity.

The water-cement ratio is the exact proportion of water and cement in concrete. It determines what its strength will be, and therefore its quality.

The influence of water on the characteristics of concrete

If there is an excess amount of liquid in the cement-sand mortar, this will lead to the formation of pores in the structure of the monolith and, as a result, to a decrease in its strength. The liquid solution is quickly distributed over the form (formwork) and soon begins to seep through the slightest cracks. As water flows out, it takes cement with it, since this binder is the lightest component of the solution by weight. Such concrete takes a long time to set due to the fact that the period of evaporation of the liquid is very significant. In most cases, this leads to cracking of the building stone.

For rigid concrete M75, the optimal water-cement ratio is 0.6. Therefore, to prepare 1 m3 of this solution, 150 liters of water will be required. But for the calculation to be absolutely accurate, you need to understand the function of the liquid in the solution. Water has two of them: it takes part in the chemical processes that occur during the hardening of cement, and provides the mixture with relative plasticity (fluidity).

This property is very important, as it ensures the absence of air bubbles in the concrete structure. Therefore, for rigid compositions, compaction (compaction) of the cement-sand mortar is so necessary, regardless of what type of aggregate is used. This work is done manually or using a special vibrating tool (vibrating plates).

How to find out the exact water-cement ratio?

The water-cement ratio is most often determined using special tables. But experienced builders can do this based on the state of the solution in the concrete mixer. If there is little water in the mixture (no more than 30% of the total amount of cement), then hard concrete is obtained. If there is a lot, then it is fluid. Big role The humidity and purity of the aggregate play a role in determining the water-cement ratio. For example, if the sand is damp with an admixture of clay, the cement-water proportion needs to be adjusted.

It is important to pay attention to the quality of cement. It should be understood that during a month of storage it loses at least 10% of its binder properties. After three months, losses will increase to 20%, after six months - to 30%. All this will affect the amount of water required to obtain concrete of proper strength. It is not recommended to use crushed limestone as a coarse aggregate, since this stone has a fairly high hygroscopicity, which does not allow determining with the necessary accuracy the required water-cement ratio for concrete of a certain brand.

An oscilloscope is a device that visually displays electrical vibrations. Its name comes from Latin and Greek words– “oscio” and “grapho”, which translates as “swinging” and “writing”, which accurately reflects the principle of its operation.

History and classification

The very first oscilloscope was invented in France in 1893 by physicist Andre Blondel and was more primitive and less accurate than its modern variations.

Today's oscilloscopes make it possible to examine signals at gigahertz frequencies. To study higher-frequency signals, as a rule, more complex electron-optical cameras are used.

Based on their purpose and method of outputting information, oscilloscopes are divided into two types. The former have a periodic sweep for direct observation of the waveform on the screen. The latter, having the same continuous scan, record the fluctuations of the curve on the photographic tape.

Periodic sweep oscilloscopes are divided into universal, high-speed, stroboscopic, storage and special. Digital ones make it possible to combine the use of different functions.

It is also customary to distinguish oscilloscopes by the method of processing the input signal into analog and digital.

There are also classifications based on the number of rays: single-beam, double-beam, etc. The number of rays can reach 16 or more.

In addition to the above variations, there are oscilloscopes combined with other measuring instruments. They are called scopometers.

Application area

As mentioned above, an oscilloscope is a device for studying the amplitude and time parameters of an electrical signal. That is why oscilloscopes have found wide application in radio engineering, where they are used for a clearer diagnosis and understanding of oscillatory processes in electronic circuits.

Using this device, you can evaluate not only and not so much the frequency of oscillations, but rather the shape and pattern of oscillatory processes. Also, using an oscilloscope, you can find interference or distortion in the passage of an electrical pulse in various circuit components.

Today it is one of the most important devices in radio electronics. It is used for applied, laboratory and research purposes, for monitoring and studying electrical signals.

The oscilloscope was also used in television broadcasting. In this area, it is used for periodic and operational monitoring of the quality indicators of the television path and its individual links.

The oscilloscope has also left its mark in the gaming industry. It was his screen that served as the display for one of the first video games, Tennis For Two. It was a virtual version of tennis.

Modern production in all areas is increasingly turning to natural materials. Many of them really have unique properties. One example is textolite - completely natural and used in many areas.

What is textolite

Textolite is a structural layered material that is produced by hot pressing of cotton fabrics. The fabrics, in turn, are impregnated with a thermosetting binder based on phenol-formaldehyde resin. Sometimes polyester, phenol-formaldehyde, epoxy, polyamide, furan, silicone resins or thermoplastics are used as impregnation.

However, it is precisely thanks to the cotton fabric that this material has compressive strength, increased impact strength and tolerates mechanical processing: drilling, cutting or stamping.

All these qualities determine the scope of use of PCB - the production of parts loaded with alternating electrical and mechanical loads or operating under friction.

In addition, PCB is an excellent electrical insulator.

In general, the properties of this material largely depend on the properties of the fabrics and binders from which the textolite is made, as well as the technology of its manufacture.

In this regard, a distinction is made between textolites, organotextolites, glass textolites, asbestos textolites, carbon textolites and basalt textolites. And the fabrics themselves differ in the type of weaving, thickness and surface density.

Areas of application of PCB

Textolite has found application in many areas. For example, it is widely used in radio electronics as an insulating material or heat insulator.

Due to its wear and vibration resistance, friction parts are created from it - bearings, bushings, rings, washers, etc. Some types of PCB are used in the chemical industry to work with aggressive environments.

In addition, it is used to work in transformer oil and in air under normal ambient humidity conditions at a current frequency of 50 Hz.

Machines and devices, the parts of which are made of textolite and its derivatives, significantly increase the productivity of the enterprise as a whole.

There are sheet and rod textolite.

Sheet textolite is a polymer intended for laying a shock-absorbing layer in electrical products. It is a composition of cotton fabric pressed and impregnated with a resin composition.

Core textolite is a special form of layering of the same cotton material. This winding method allows the use of textolite in industries related to high voltage work.

The technology for the production of high-strength fibers, obtained in the 60s of the last century, is still widely used today. The brand involved in this production is called Kevlar.

Kevlar and its properties

Kevlar belongs to the aramids - fibers with high thermal and mechanical strength. The scientific name of this fiber is polyparaphenylene terephthalamide. Kevlar is produced by DuPont. Kevlar has very high strength. It is almost five times stronger than steel.

The strength and elasticity of Kevlar is maintained at fairly low temperatures down to -196°C. When exposed to low temperatures, Kevlar even becomes stronger.

Kevlar does not melt when heated. It begins to collapse at temperatures of 430-480°C. The rate of destruction depends on the temperature and duration of temperature exposure. These parameters are quite impressive. If the temperature is 150°C, then in 500 hours the strength of Kevlar will decrease by only 10-15%. However, it is easily destroyed by prolonged exposure to ultraviolet light, so it should not be exposed to direct sunlight for a long time. Kevlar also loses its strength when wet.

Kevlar is highly resistant to impact and crack propagation. Under high loads, Kevlar fibers bend and form dents. It resembles in design, but does not require processing.

Applications of Kevlar

Due to its properties, Kevlar is widely used and used, despite its high cost.

The original purpose of Kevlar fibers was to use it to reinforce automobile tires. It is still successfully used in this area. It is also used to reinforce speakers and copper cable fibers.

In the manufacture of mixed fabrics, Kevlar is also used as a component for reinforcement. These fabrics are used to make protective gloves, puncture-resistant insoles, and protective parts of clothing intended for extreme sports, for example, in motorcycle clothing.

The high strength of Kevlar allows it to be used for the manufacture of body armor and helmets. This application of Kevlar has become perhaps the most popular. Kevlar protective equipment is relatively lightweight and has a tremendous energy absorption rate. Kevlar body armor has passed most of the tests. To prevent deterioration in the quality of protective equipment, waterproof coatings were made for them, which also protected from exposure to the sun.

What is meant by the term "freight"

Freight implies a contractual relationship between two parties - the seller of the goods, who needs to deliver it to its destination, and the carrier chosen by him, who undertakes the delivery of this cargo. However, in some cases, delivery and insurance of the delivered goods are paid by the seller in advance, before the goods are sent.

But most often, freight payment occurs after the cargo is delivered to its destination. This implies that the seller assumes possible risks and other additional costs for delivery of the goods. But according to the established rules, the carrier also has the obligation to provide insurance in favor of the buyer for such insured events as loss and damage to the transported goods.

The party, which in the freight agreement is called the “carrier,” can be any person who, within the framework of the obligations assumed under this agreement, must ensure the timely and safe transportation of goods by any type of transport. This can be by rail, road, air, sea or inland waterway transport, or any combination thereof.

What determines the cost of freight

The cost of freight also includes the cost of loading and unloading of goods at the place of departure and destination. In the case where dangerous goods are transported, a multiplying factor is applied. In addition, the cost of transportation may be affected by various international and domestic duties and taxes, as well as seasonal price fluctuations in the market freight transport.

Careful work on the uniqueness of the text is required by representatives of many professions. Really useful information It’s not so easy to find information on this topic, so you have to figure out many things on your own.

Here are a few simple ways increasing the uniqueness of the text.

When rewriting a text, try to rewrite sentences from the end. This approach allows you to get a new proposal with the same meaning and high uniqueness. At the same time, make sure that the sentences in the text remain connected to each other in meaning.

Do not use programs that increase uniqueness. Firstly, most of them are paid. Secondly, increasing uniqueness is mainly achieved by filling the source text with hidden characters. The number of characters in the text will increase, but the uniqueness will remain virtually unchanged. Synonymizer programs - these generally produce indigestible text that requires such serious rework that it’s easier to do everything yourself from the very beginning. No customer will accept such a text, be it a literary text for payment or a student’s coursework.

Those who are not only forced from time to time to create unique texts (for example, student work), but also make money from it, know very well what a “shingle” is. This term refers to the number of words used by the program to check uniqueness. Most often, the test with the shingle “3” is taken as the standard. When checking text, a program with these settings will check the loaded text not after three, but after FOUR words. For your text to pass the uniqueness check using this algorithm, the most simple option when working with it, every fourth word will be replaced. If this does not work out in all cases, we count back a word or two, change it, then start counting from the last corrected word.

Even if you write the text entirely yourself, without using any sources, there may still be non-unique fragments in it. The solution is simple - do not use hackneyed phrases, generally accepted clichés, and your texts will turn out not only unique, but also interesting.