Abstract: Ancient culture. Ancient culture of ancient Greece

Introduction
1. Culture of Ancient Greece
1.1. Culture of Hellas in the XXX-XII centuries. BC.
1.2. Culture of the “Dark Ages” (XI-IX centuries BC)
1.3. Culture of the archaic period (VIII-VI centuries BC)
1.4. Greek culture in the 5th century. BC.
2. Culture of Ancient Rome
2.1. Early Rome (VIII-VI centuries BC)
2.2. Early Roman Republic (V-IV centuries BC)
2.3. The heyday of Roman culture during the Republic era (III-I centuries BC)
2.4. The era of the early Roman Empire (27 BC - 2nd century AD)
2.5. Culture of the Roman Empire in the 1st-2nd centuries.
2.6. Culture of the decline of the Roman Empire (III-V centuries AD)
Conclusion
List of used literature

Introduction

The term "antiquity" comes from the Latin word "antiquus" - ancient. It is customary to refer to a special period in the development of Ancient Greece and Rome, as well as those lands and peoples that were under their cultural influence. The chronological framework of this period, like any other cultural and historical phenomenon, cannot be precisely determined, but it largely coincides with the time of existence of the ancient states themselves: from the 11th to the 9th centuries. BC, the time of the formation of ancient society in Greece and until the 5th AD. - the death of the Roman Empire under the blows of the barbarians.

The paths common to ancient states were social development and a special form of property - ancient slavery, as well as a form of production based on it. What they had in common was a civilization with a common historical and cultural complex. This does not deny, of course, the presence of undeniable features and differences in the life of ancient societies.

The main, core in ancient culture were religion and mythology. For the ancient Greeks, mythology was the content and form of their worldview, their worldview; it was inseparable from the life of this society. Then - ancient slavery. It was not only the basis of the economy and public life, it was also the basis of the worldview of the people of that time. Next, we should highlight science and artistic culture as core phenomena in ancient culture. When studying the culture of ancient Greece and Rome, it is necessary, first of all, to concentrate on these dominants of ancient culture.

1. Culture of Ancient Greece

1.1. Culture of Hellas in the XXX-XII centuries. BC.

The original and multifaceted early Greek culture was formed in 3000-1200. BC. Various factors accelerated its movement. For example, completed ethnogenesis Greek people strengthened internal ties throughout the Greek-speaking world, despite frequent local clashes.

The creative activity of the Greeks of the Bronze Age was based on their development of a large stock of experimental knowledge. It is necessary, first of all, to note the level and volume of technological knowledge that allowed the population of Hellas to widely develop specialized craft production.

Pottery also indicates fluency in complex thermal processes carried out in kilns of various designs.

Accumulation of technological knowledge and progress of skill wide range ordinary workers, both in agriculture and in specialized and domestic crafts, were the basis of the intensive economic development of the country.

Architecture was distinguished by its high achievements. Architectural monuments clearly reflect the presence of property inequality and indicate the emergence of early class monarchies.

During the XX-XII centuries. BC. The art of vase painting developed rapidly. The breadth of society's artistic demands was manifested in art's close attention to man and his activities. At the same time, artists did not forget about conveying the physical appearance of a person, reproducing nude figures in painting, sculpture, toreutics and glyptics. It is noteworthy that even in ordinary monuments of art one can notice respect for people.

The literature of the early Greeks, like other peoples, went back to the traditions of ancient folklore, which included fairy tales, fables, myths and songs. With the change in social conditions, the rapid development of folk epic poetry began, glorifying the deeds of the ancestors and heroes of each tribe.

Writing in Greek culture of the XXII-XII centuries. BC. played a limited role. Like many peoples of the world, the inhabitants of Hellas, first of all, began to make pictorial notes, known already in the second half of the 3rd millennium. Each sign of this pictographic writing denoted an entire concept.

The religion of early Greece played a large role in the dynamics of Hellenic social thought. Initially, the Greek religion, like any other primitive religion, reflects only the weakness of man in the face of those “forces” that in nature, later in society and in his own consciousness, seem to interfere with his actions and pose a threat to his existence, thus more terrible that he poorly understands where it comes from.

1.2. Culture of the “Dark Ages” (XI-IX centuries BC)

The palace civilization of the Cretan-Mycenaean era disappeared from the historical scene under mysterious, still unclear circumstances around the end of the 12th century. BC. The era ancient civilization begins only after three and a half and even four centuries.

Archaeological research in recent years has made it possible to clarify the true scale of the terrible catastrophe experienced by the Mycenaean civilization at the turn of the 13th-12th centuries. BC, and also trace the main stages of its decline in the subsequent period.

The main distinguishing feature of that period was the depressing poverty of material culture, which concealed a sharp decline in the standard of living of the bulk of the population of Greece and an equally sharp decline in the country's productive forces. The products of Submycenaean potters that have reached us make the most bleak impression. They are very rough in shape, carelessly molded, and lack even elementary grace.

The total number of metal products surviving from this period is extremely small. Large items, such as weapons, are extremely rare. Small crafts like brooches or rings predominate.

True, almost at the same time the first iron products appeared in Greece. Scattered finds of bronze knives with iron inserts date back to the very beginning of the period.

Another distinctive feature of the Submycenaean period was the decisive break with the traditions of the Mycenaean era. The most common method of burial in Mycenaean times in chamber tombs was replaced by individual burials in box graves (cysts) or in simple pits.

The most important factor contributing to the eradication of the Mycenaean cultural traditions, of course, the sharply increased mobility of the bulk of the Greek population must be taken into account. Began in the first half of the 12th century. BC. The outflow of population from the areas of the country most affected by the barbarian invasion also continued in the Submycenaean period.

If we try to extrapolate all these symptoms of cultural decline and regression into the sphere of socio-economic relations inaccessible to our direct observation, we will almost inevitably have to admit that in the XII-XI centuries. BC. Greek society was thrown back far back to the stage primitive communal system and, in essence, returned again to the starting line from which the formation of the Mycenaean civilization once began.

1.3. Culture of the archaic period (VIII-VI centuries BC)

One of the most important factors of Greek culture of the 8th-6th centuries. BC is rightfully considered a new writing system. The alphabetic script, partly borrowed from the Phoenicians, was more convenient than the ancient syllabic script of the Mycenaean era: it consisted of only 24 characters, each of which had a firmly established phonetic meaning. Unlike syllabic writing, which was used mainly for keeping accounts and, perhaps to some extent, for composing religious texts, the new writing system was a truly universal means of transmitting information, which could equally well be used in business correspondence. and for recording lyrical poems or philosophical aphorisms. All this led to a rapid increase in literacy among the population of Greek city-states, as evidenced by numerous inscriptions on stone, metal, and ceramics, the number of which is increasingly increasing as we approach the end of the archaic period.

Almost at the same time (second half of the 8th century BC) such outstanding examples of monumental art were created and, most likely, recorded at the same time heroic epic, like the Iliad and the Odyssey, with which the history of Greek literature begins.

Greek poetry of the post-Homeric period (VII-VI centuries BC) is distinguished by its extreme thematic richness and diversity of forms and genres. Lyric poetry is becoming widespread and soon becomes the leading literary movement of the era, which in turn is divided into several main genres: elegy, iambic, monodic, i.e. intended for solo performance, and choral lyrics.

While some Greek poets sought to comprehend in their poems the complex inner world of man and to find the optimal version of his relationship with the civil collective of the polis, others no less persistently tried to penetrate into the structure of the universe surrounding man and solve the riddle of its origin.

During the era of the Great Colonization, traditional Greek religion did not meet the spiritual needs of its contemporaries also because it was difficult to find in it the answer to the question of what awaits a person in his life. future life and whether it exists at all. In their own way, representatives of two closely related religious and philosophical teachings - the Orphics and the Pythagoreans - tried to solve this painful question. Both the Orphics and the Pythagoreans attempted to correct and purify the traditional beliefs of the Greeks, replacing them with a more refined, spiritually charged form of religion.

For the first time in the history of mankind, Milesian thinkers tried to imagine the entire universe around them in the form of a harmoniously arranged, self-developing and self-regulating system.

In the VII-VI centuries. BC. Greek architects for the first time after a long break began to erect monumental temple buildings from stone, limestone or marble.

The most widespread and accessible type of archaic Greek art was, of course, vase painting. In their work, aimed at the widest consumer, vase painters depended much less on the canons sanctified by religion or the state than sculptors or architects. Therefore, their art was much more dynamic, diverse and responded more quickly to all kinds of artistic discoveries and experiments.

1.4. Greek culture in the 5th century. BC.

In the first half of the 5th century. BC. Important changes took place in the religious ideology of the Greeks. Unfortunately, they are little known to us and are most often reflected in literary works, which can make it difficult to know whether a given phenomenon is the result of individual or group creativity or reflects a widely held belief. The rise of the classical polis and the victory over the Persians had important consequences for the people's worldview. Modern researchers have noted an increase in religiosity among the Greeks.

Development at the end of the Archaic period on the basis of the ancient peasant cult of hope for immortality, which was previously considered to belong not to an individual, but to a series of successive generations, in Athens in the 5th century BC, when man felt free from the ties of family and traditions, reaches the cult of personal immortality.

There is a humanization of religion, it becomes worldly. From that time on, the state and the gods formed an inextricable whole. Religious feeling gives way to the patriotism and pride of citizens who are able to erect such magnificent monuments to their gods, which are the occasion for magnificent celebrations and become the subject of admiration throughout the world.

In philosophy of the 5th century. BC. The leading direction remained natural philosophy, which had developed in Ionia in the previous century. The most prominent representatives of the spontaneous-materialistic natural philosophy of this time were Heraclitus of Ephesus, Anaxagoras and Empedocles.

Ancient Greek materialism reached its highest flowering in the teachings of Leucippus and Democritus. Leucippus laid the foundations of atomistic philosophy. His student Democritus not only accepted the cosmological theory of his teacher, but expanded and refined it, creating a universal philosophical system.

V century BC. can be considered the time of the birth of science as a special field of activity. However, ancient Greek science could preserve this character only to a certain level. The expansion of the sphere of knowledge, the increase in its amount led not only to the spin-off of individual sciences from natural philosophy, but also (sometimes) to a conflict between them.

Significant changes that took place in Greek culture during the 5th century. BC, are clearly reflected in the literature. The beginning of the century sees the decline of choral lyrics - that genre of literature that dominated the archaic era; At the same time, Greek tragedy was born - the genre of literature that most fully corresponds to the spirit of the classical polis.

According to the most common periodization, the history of Greek fine art and architecture of the 5th century. BC. It is customary to divide it into two large periods: the art of the early classics, or strict style, and the art of the high, or developed, classics. The border between them passes approximately in the middle of the century, however, the borders in art are generally quite arbitrary, and the transition from one quality to another occurs gradually and in different spheres of art at different speeds. This observation is true not only for the boundary between early and high classics, but also between archaic and early classical art.

Thus, the end of the V-IV centuries. BC. - a period of turbulent spiritual life in Greece, the formation of the idealistic ideas of Socrates and Plato, which developed in the struggle against the materialistic philosophy of Democritus, and the emergence of the teachings of the Cynics.

2. Culture of Ancient Rome

2.1. Early Rome (VIII- VIcenturies BC.)

In the first centuries of the 1st millennium BC. The territory of the Apennine Peninsula was inhabited by Italic Indo-European tribes, divided ethnically and linguistically into several groups. On the formation of early Roman culture greatest influence were influenced by the Latin tribes living in the region of Latium (where the city of Rome arose).

The Etruscans were experienced farmers and skilled craftsmen. They produced a kind of ceramics called bucchero. . The vessels were fired until black, then polished and decorated with relief images of animals and birds. Etruscan artistic bronze casting was also famous . Etruscan ceramics and various metal products found wide sales in Italy itself, Greece, Carthage and other places.

The heyday of Etruscan culture in Italy took place in the 7th-5th centuries. BC. The level of development of productive forces among the Etruscans was very high for that time. Their cities had a regular layout, paved streets, a good sewage system, and many temples on stone foundations. Almost all the achievements of the Etruscans in construction were subsequently borrowed by the Romans.

In general, despite numerous influences and borrowings, early Roman culture grew on local, Italian soil and was quite original.

2.2. Early Roman Republic (V- IVcenturies BC.)

The early Roman state acquired the main features of a polis. The Roman Republic was aristocratic and patrician.

Roman culture V-IV centuries. BC. was formed and strengthened, absorbing various influences, primarily Etruscan and Greek.

There was development Latin language and writing, literacy spread in Rome, rhetoric developed, and large construction projects were carried out. In the 4th century. BC. in Rome, the custom of a three-syllable compound name took root (Gai Julius Caesar, Marcus Lininius Crassus, Publius Virgil Maro). Roman names consisted of personal (proper) , family names and family (nicknames) . Starting from the 4th century BC. The cognomen began to be inherited and denote the name of the family in the clan to which the person belonged.

2.3. The heyday of Roman culture during the Republic era (III- Icenturies BC.)

In the III-II centuries. BC Rome waged wars outside of Italy: first with Carthage, a strong state in North Africa. At the same time, Rome fought with the Illyrians, Macedonia and the kingdom

The Roman state, having turned into a powerful slave-holding power of antiquity, was torn from within by acute social and class contradictions. In Rome there was a fierce struggle for power between representatives noble families, politicians and generals.

Against this eventful background, the further development of Roman culture took place. The socio-political and economic system of Rome gave rise to its own system of values, where military valor, military exploits and the glory of the Roman name had the main place. Among the Romans, myths - stories about the gods - did not develop as much as among the Greeks, giving way to some extent to historical legends, especially the history of Roman warriors.

A powerful cultural movement begins in Rome at the end of the 3rd century. BC. Its main feature was the influence of Greek culture, Greek language and education. For young and noble Romans, it was considered obligatory to master everything that was taught in Greece. The need for educated people was met by importing educated Greek slaves. Numerous figures of Roman culture - prose writers, poets, philosophers, orators, lawyers, teachers, doctors, artists, architects, the overwhelming majority were non-Romans. Not only the nobility can get acquainted with Greek culture. But also common people Of great importance was the accumulation in Rome of paintings and statues taken from Greek cities, which were exhibited in squares and temples and served as models for Roman masters.

At the end of the 3rd century. BC. Latin is formed in Rome literary language and on its basis - epic poetry. A whole galaxy of talented poets and playwrights appeared, who usually took Greek tragedies and comedies as models.

From the middle of the 2nd century. BC. Historical becomes the most important genre in prose. Roman historical works, as a rule, had a pronounced propaganda character; Rome remained the starting point for them.

IN last century The Roman Republic (1st century BC) became famous for their historical works of Gaius Sallust Crispus and Gaius Julius Caesar, who (among other historians) better reflected the severity of the political struggle in the era of civil wars; Sallust gave magnificent portraits of contemporary Roman political figures .

Along with historical works, scientific, philosophical and rhetorical works occupied an important place in Roman literature of the Republic era.

In the II-I centuries. BC. Various currents of Hellenistic philosophy became known in Rome. The ancient Romans did a lot to familiarize themselves with them political figure, famous speaker and the writer Marcus Tullius Cicero (1st century BC).

In the 1st century BC. in Rome, rhetoric, the art of political and judicial eloquence, reached its highest development, which was associated with the turbulent social life of the transitional era from the Republic to the Empire.

The most original achievement of Roman fiction was satire, a literary genre of purely Roman origin.

Only a few architectural monuments have survived from the Republican period in the history of Ancient Rome. In construction, the Romans mainly used four architectural orders: Tuscan (borrowed from the Etruscans), Doric, Ionic and Corinthian. Roman temples resemble Greek ones in their rectangular shape and the use of porticoes, but unlike the Greek ones, they were grander and. as a rule, they were erected on high podiums (rectangular platforms with stairs). In the V-IV centuries. BC. In Roman construction, mainly soft volcanic tuff was used. In the late Republican period, fired brick and marble were widely used. In the II century. BC. Roman builders invented concrete, which caused the widespread spread of arched-vaulted structures that transformed all ancient architecture -

Free-standing columns were very popular in Roman architecture, erected, for example, in honor of military victories.

A very characteristic type of Roman structures were arcades - a series of arches supported by pillars or columns. Arcades were used in the construction open galleries, running along the wall of a building, for example a theater, as well as in multi-tiered aqueducts stone bridges. inside which were hidden lead and clay pipes supplying water to the city.

Arched and vaulted structures were also used in the construction of amphitheaters - original Roman theaters in which the seats for spectators were not located in a semicircle, as in the Greek ones, but in an ellipse around the stage or arena.

A specific Roman type of structure was the triumphal arch, which became most widespread in the era of the Empire as a monument to military and imperial glory.

2.4. The era of the early Roman Empire (27 BC - 2nd century AD)

During the reign of Octavian Augustus (27 BC - 14 AD), Roman culture experienced a brilliant flourishing, its “golden age”. The Principate of Augustus, the main slogans of which were: the restoration of the republic and the morals of the ancestors, the end of wars and unrest, was perceived by contemporaries as a long-awaited deliverance from the civil strife and wars shaking Roman society.

In the “Augustan Age,” the synthesis of ancient, Greek and Roman culture was completed. Under the influence of the final development and processing of the Hellenic heritage, literature and art reached high perfection, and ancient culture was finally formed, which became an essential component of European culture.

The development of architecture (but only in the capital Rome) led to the appearance of wall painting, best known from excavations of houses in Pompeii in Italy. The frescoes depicted colorful pictures of mythological, historical, everyday subjects and were reminiscent of Greek ones. Greek designs were reproduced by sculptors. True, Roman sculpture was distinguished by greater realism in reproducing the features of the original, since Roman art was characterized by an interest in psychology. Such is the marble statue of Augustus Primaporta, created in the style of Polykleitos, but more majestic and closer to the original. The culture of the “Augustan Age” created the preconditions for the comprehensive flourishing of Roman culture in the 1st-2nd centuries. AD

2.5. Culture of the Roman Empire in the 1st-2nd centuries.

Roman culture retained its brilliance and splendor, and in some respects surpassed its previous level. Never before has it shone with such a constellation of names: philosophers - Senka, Epithet, Marcus Aurelius, Sextus Empyrecus, Dion Chrysostomos.

A characteristic feature of the cultural life of Rome in the era of the early Empire was that natives not only of the city of Rome, but also of all of Italy and especially the Roman provinces took an active part in its creation.

The epistolary genre was very popular in the early Roman Empire. Such are, for example, the letters of Senator Pliny the Younger to his friends and Emperor Trajan. The genre of the novel was new, but only one of the Roman novels has reached us - “Metamorphoses” (or “The Golden Ass”) by Apuleius (2nd century).

Among the outstanding achievements of Roman architecture are the triumphal arches, one, three and five-bays, which were erected in honor of the emperor. If the Greeks explained a military victory by the valor of all soldiers, then the Romans attributed it to the personal merits of the commander. The triumphal arch served as an expression of the highest honors to the emperor-commander.

In the II century. The first equestrian statues appear in Rome. Such is the equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius, which still adorns the Capitoline Square.

One of the most remarkable Roman buildings are the baths, which played a large role in the daily life of the Romans. Roman baths have come a long way from republican simplicity to the luxury and excesses of the imperial era. They belonged to both private individuals and the state, the latter intended for public needs.

In the I-II centuries. rapid construction took place not only in Rome, but also in other cities of Italy and in the provinces. Throughout the empire one can find the remains of monumental structures and monuments of that time: the great temple of Zeus in Athens, the amphitheater in Verona, ports in Ostia and Herculaneum, the amphitheater in Pompeii. And in Mesopotamia, and in Egypt, and in Galia, and in Spain, traces of ancient, Greco-Roman architecture have been preserved: amphitheaters and circuses, baths and aqueducts, roads and bridges, arches and columns, temples and plastic compositions.

2.6. Culture during the decline of the Roman Empire (III- Vcenturies AD)

The events of the 3rd century in the Roman Empire received the name “crisis of the 3rd century” in science. Most of all, crisis phenomena affected the political life of Rome: new civil wars, “barbarization” of the Empire, growing separatism of the provinces, the ever-increasing pressure on the empire of tribal unions of Germans and other peoples, etc. IN economically by the middle of the 3rd century. the empire came to a state of complete ruin.

Crisis phenomena have also affected culture. Interest in philosophy and science practically disappeared. Instead of philosophy, there is increasingly an appeal to religion, to various mystical cults and superstitions.

In the visual arts, practically the only remarkable phenomenon was the realistic sculptural portrait - one of the greatest achievements of Roman art as a whole. Having emerged back in the Republican era (marble busts of Pompey, Caesar, Cicero, etc.), it reached its highest peak in the era of the Empire.

The cult of imperial power contributed to the creation of colossal, majestic structures. Late Roman art is symbolic - the statues of emperors embody inhuman greatness, they seem to be devoid of a body, life burns only in the eyes, reflecting the soul.

After the death of Constantine (337), the crisis of the ancient order sharply worsened in Rome again. Barbarian attacks on the borders of the empire intensified, and the Romans lost almost all of their provinces. Torn apart by internal contradictions, the Roman Empire, pressed on all sides by external enemies, was steadily moving towards its end. In 395, the Roman Empire was finally divided into Western and Eastern. Capital western half the city of Rome remained, and the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire (the future Byzantium) became the city of Constantinople, founded by Constantine on the site of the former Greek colony Byzantium.

In 410 and 455, Rome suffered a terrible defeat - first from the Goths, and then from the Vandals (hence the concept of vandalism). In the middle of the 5th century. Only Italy remained under the rule of the emperor. In 476, the commander of the German mercenaries stationed in Italy, Odoacer, removed the young emperor Romulus Augustulus and sent the signs of imperial dignity to Constantinople. This event is considered to be the end of the Western Roman Empire.

What is punishable for the Eastern Roman Empire is that it did not perish under the blows of the barbarians, but existed for almost another thousand years. With the end of the Western Roman Empire, ancient culture also perished. The history of the ancient civilizations of Asia, Africa and Europe allows us to trace the features and main stages of the development of world culture of that time - from the early class and rather primitive cultures of the East to the cultures of the ancient world, striking in their harmony and perfection,

The culture of ancient civilizations had a huge influence on the subsequent cultural development of mankind. The diverse cultural values ​​developed by the ancient Egyptian and ancient Mesopotamian civilizations were perceived, comprehended and creatively processed by later societies, primarily ancient Greece and Rome. In turn, the ancient world and its culture formed the basis of European civilization, which periodically turned to the ideas and motifs of the Greco-Roman cultural heritage. Outstanding astronomers of the Middle Ages - Galileo Galilei, Nicolaus Copernicus, Johannes Kepler - relied on the works of Aristarchus of Samos and his theory of the revolution of the Earth and planets around the Sun. The Pythagorean theorem, Euclid's geometry, and Archimedes' law became the basis of schooling in feudal Europe.

Christianity, having absorbed the values ​​of ancient culture, became the leading world religion.

Roman law formed the basis of all legal systems of Western European states.

Modern types and genres of literature also go back to antiquity. European theater, drama and literature constantly turned to it.

Conclusion

Ancient culture is a unique phenomenon that provided general cultural values ​​in literally all areas of spiritual and material activity. Only three generations of cultural figures, whose lives practically fit into the classical period of the history of Ancient Greece, laid the foundations European civilization and created role models for millennia to come. Distinctive features ancient Greek culture: spiritual diversity, mobility and freedom - allowed the Greeks to reach unprecedented heights before peoples imitated the Greeks, building a culture according to the models they created.

The culture of Ancient Rome is in many ways a successor ancient traditions Greece - distinguished by religious restraint, internal severity and external expediency. The practicality of the Romans found worthy expression in urban planning, politics, jurisprudence, and the art of war. The culture of Ancient Rome largely determined the culture of subsequent eras in Western Europe.

List of used literature

1. Kumanetsky K. History of culture of Ancient Greece and Rome. - M., 1990.
2. Philosophy: Textbook for universities/Under general. ed. V. V. Mironova. - M.: Norma, 2005.
3. World artistic culture: Educational publication/Ed. L.Yu. Vasilevskaya, O.V. Divnenko. - M.: Center, 1996.
4. Lessons of ancient culture: Textbook / Miretskaya N.V., Miretskaya E.V. - Obninsk: Title, 1996.
5. Zeller E. Ancient philosophy. - St. Petersburg, 1996.
6. Chanyshev N.A. Philosophy of the Ancient World: Textbook for universities. - M.: graduate School, 2001.

Ancient culture is a widely used term to define a long period in the history of culture centered in the Mediterranean region, primarily including the interconnected civilizations of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome. It existed from the poetry of Homer (8-7 centuries BC) until the fifth century AD.

Reviewing the monuments of ancient Greek culture and art chronologically, one can state the development of the most ancient ways of expressing thoughts with the help of images, but at the same time continuously improving them to the level of the highest artistic ideals.

The ancient culture of the Greeks and Romans, experiencing some influence from the Ancient East, prevailed everywhere as the basis of art, philosophy, social and educational institutions. Ideals were preserved and imitated. This Greco-Roman cultural foundation greatly influenced language, politics, educational systems, philosophy, science, art and architecture modern world.

The classical heritage flourished in the Middle Ages in the Byzantine-Greek East, in the Latin West. The Byzantines, who called themselves Romans, retained many of the attributes of economic, legal, and administrative organizations characteristic of Ancient Rome. In Northern Europe, the Frankish king Charlemagne and the Saxon ruler Otto I, who sought to restore the Western Roman Empire, were crowned "emperor and Augustus" by the Pope. Ancient culture was revived during the emergence of various neoclassical movements of the 18th and 19th centuries. Relics of Greco-Roman antiquity - coins, jewelry, vase painting, sculpture, architecture, literature - have fascinated thinking people in all eras.

Poetry continued to be written in Latin into the 19th century. Among famous poets- John Milton and Arthur Rimbaud received their first poetic education in this language. In music, one can also recall his “Greek trilogy” for the ballets “Apollo”, “Orpheus”, “Agon”.

Ancient culture with its mythological subjects and symbols left a deep mark on Western European literature and painting.

In philosophy, the works of Saint Thomas Aquinas were mainly based on the ideas of Plato, but reinterpreted in the light of the Christian religion.

Architecture is marked by several "renaissances", especially Roman architecture, just take the example of Washington in America. The city is filled with large marble buildings that closely resemble Roman temples with columns.

The era of antiquity became a particularly popular subject of interest in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, when classical sculptural and architectural works provided motifs for engravings. Printed images from them served a very important cause. They provided an opportunity for people interested in works of art and culture to study them. One of bright examples- “Bacchanalia” by Andrea Mantegna. It was created by the great artist after his visit to Rome (in 1488-1490). The characteristic features of the engraving are a frieze-like composition; the figures are copied from ancient sarcophagi that Mantegna saw in private collections and Roman churches. The work greatly influenced the outstanding master Albrecht Durer, for whom ancient culture also became a subject of inspiration and research. The fruits of this influence are clearly visible in Durer's engraving "Adam and Eve". Adam has a pose, a sculptural image of which was discovered near Rome at the end of the fifteenth century.

Imitating the magnificent works of the ancients, while at the same time trying to surpass them, artists, sculptors, and writers in subsequent historical periods truly revived the former greatness of the classical era.

Ancient culture is dear to us primarily because it laid the foundations for further development science and art: in art the path to realism was indicated, and in science - to a materialistic worldview.

Ancient culture delighted and inspired the artists of the Renaissance, it was worshiped and taken as a model by the founders of all academies, and it helped many scientists in scientific research.

Ancient (ancient) Greece was the cradle of European civilization and culture. It was here that those material, spiritual, aesthetic values ​​were laid down, which to one degree or another found their development among almost all European peoples. Antiquity had a great influence on the subsequent development of European peoples, it became their common heritage, the basis of all European culture. The achievements of this civilization are firmly fixed in consciousness, language, philosophy, artistic images. The earliest images of the originality of this culture appeared at the level of the most ancient forms of folk art, in particular mythology, the plots of which have served as rich material for painters, sculptors, composers, and poets for many centuries. Many images ancient mythology have become familiar and understandable: Ariadne’s thread, Achilles’ heel, apple of discord, etc. Also, many Greek and Latin words contained in everyday and scientific language.

In antique classical architecture different orders: Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, Tuscan and compositional (complex). An order is one of the types of architectural composition, consisting of vertical load-bearing parts - supports in the form of columns, pillars or pilasters and supporting horizontal parts - an entablature, including an architrave, frieze and cornice.

“Greek miracle” is the name given to the phenomenon of the culture of Ancient Greece, which in a fairly short period of time for civilization reached significant heights in the material and spiritual spheres. Ships ply the seas and make it possible to bring many colonies from Crimea to Gibraltar and carry out regular trade exchanges.

The main political, economic and civil legal unit is the polis (city-state). Policy was an association of private landowners, as well as citizens engaged in various trades and crafts, who, being full members, had the right to property. A polis is a city with an adjacent rural area, therefore peasants, like the townspeople themselves, are among the citizens of the polis.

The political system is democracy (democracy), but the “demos” (people) includes only full citizens (without slaves, immigrants from other policies and some other groups of the population; they make up less than half of the residents of the policy). Social change is set by the “slave-citizen” scale, and the slave was considered a vicious person by nature, and only a full citizen of the polis could be virtuous.

Ancient Greek culture gave the world democracy, which arose within the framework of the polis-state, Olympic Games, the first complete alphabet alphabet (the Greeks took its basis from the Phoenicians), and in this culture writing turned out to be not a professional skill, but the property of everyone. The birth of European-style theater and philosophy also took place here. The development of philosophy - systematic reflection on the structure and essence of the world, about man, about morality, about the divine.

Religion of the Greeks - polytheism(polytheism). They believe in the existence of many gods, most of whom live on Mount Olympus (hence the “Olympic religion”). Olympic mythology defines the main dimensions of spiritual culture; it permeates works of art, literature, customs, etc. Belief in the transmigration of souls. Belief in a destiny initially predetermined for everyone, hence deep fatalism.

Time is cyclical. There is a great year (about 30,000 years), after which everything repeats all over again. At the same time, modernity, as a rule, is valued much lower than the past (legends of the “golden age”).

The Universe, space is limited, it is divided into several spheres inserted into one another. The sublunar world (everything below the sphere of the Moon) is changeable and impermanent, the supralunar world is monotonous, correct and imperishable.

The ideal of the Greek is the model citizen, the one who died happy. In art - a perfect, harmoniously developed person who meets certain proportions. The appearance, along with the developed epic, of lyricism and tragedy. The discovery of individuality, the emergence of narratives about the feelings of an individual person.

Culture of oral communication. Books as a mnemonic device, external memory, but have value in communication, in conversation. Greek culture (“agon”), its manifestation in sports (Olympic Games, Nemean Games, etc.), in the love of discussions, in constant readiness to respond to challenges, love of judicial procedure. Hence Mens sana in corpore sano - A healthy mind in a healthy body.

“Hellenism” is the historical period of the spread of Greek culture to Egypt and the East, which arose after the campaigns of Alexander the Great in the 3rd century. BC e. The influence of Greek culture continued after the collapse of the huge state and the formation on its basis of the “Hellenistic” and eastern states and on the culture of these states until their conquest by Rome or Parthia (280-30 BC). The concept of “Hellenism” was introduced by the German historian I. Droysen.

In general, the main, most striking features of ancient civilization can be identified:

– humanism- here man is the “measure of all things”, the gods are the same people, only possessing a number of virtues and qualities that exceed human capabilities, therefore the temple in this culture is not a place where a person feels his insignificance compared to the deity, but on the contrary: it is here that you can feel your greatness and meet the gods one on one;

– rationalism– reason, reason here regulates actions, emotions fade, and the idea appears that reason is the only thing that helps a person make a choice in any situation;

– individualism– the meaning of emotions does not lose meaning only in a person’s relationship to himself: it is in this culture that we can say that the formation of a personal, individual principle takes place, here a person begins to recognize himself not just as a member of a clan, but as a separate subject, an individual;

– agonistic (agonistic) the nature of the culture - individualism as the most important feature influences the peculiarity of ancient culture: “agon” - competitive, competitive, achieving victory at any cost, just to satisfy one’s own ambitions and stand out from the “mass”;

– paideia– upbringing, education: within the framework of the policy there should not be a person who would not take part in its affairs, therefore the education of the individual and citizen becomes vitally important; Thus, paideia becomes a way of forming a personality, by transferring to it a rational system of knowledge, and also this is bringing into a state of harmony the entire human body, which is the personification inner world person;

– legislative basis– this culture tries to achieve harmony between natural world and the law; here the law is an institution to which all people and gods obey; a free person must obey only the law and he will not tolerate the supremacy of another person over himself, therefore in ancient culture, unlike many others, there is no master over a person except the law;

– patriotism– the cult of law gives rise to the exaltation of human freedom, both of an individual and of an entire state; thus, a cult of citizenship and patriotism is formed: the fall of one’s hometown threatened one’s own life and could lead to slavery, which in this freedom-loving and independent culture was perceived as death; therefore, the history of ancient culture is replete with constant riots and wars;

– culture of the present– ancient people rarely thought about the future, much less looked back to the past, so this culture is often called the culture of children who think only about today, who want to get everything here and now;

– cyclical nature of development– this culture does not strive for linearity, for progress: ancient man believed that people had already achieved everything, new and better were not needed. Thus, all these features paint us a certain portrait, unlike other cultures, but in some ways close and understandable to us.

Ancient civilization- the “cradle” of European culture, which could hardly have reached such heights if it had not adopted its most important cultural values.

Here are some of artistic heritage ancient civilization:

1) Ancient Greece:

The ensemble of the Acropolis, including the Parthenon (Temple of Athena). Athens. V century BC e.

General guidance – Phidias. Architects: Ictinus, Callicrates, Mnesicles.

Myron of Eleuther. Statue “Discobolus”, 5th century. BC e. Roman copy. Thermal Museum; Rome

Polykleitos. Statue "Doriphoros". V century BC e. Roman copy. National Museum, Naples.

Skopas. Tombstone of a young man from the Ilissa River. IV century BC e. National Archaeological Museum, Athens.

Lehar. Apollo Belvedere. Ser. IV century BC e. Roman copy. Pio Clementino Museum, Vatican (Rome).

Agesander from Antioch. Venus of Melos. II century BC. Louvre, Paris.

Aeschylus (525 - 456 BC) Prometheus Bound: Tragedy.

Aristophanes (c. 446 - 388 BC). Comedy "Clouds". 423 BC e.

Sophocles (496 - 406 BC) Tragedy “Oedipus the King”. 429-425 BC e.

Homer. Poems "Iliad" and "Odyssey".

Hesiod. "Theogony", "Works and Days".

2) Ancient Rome:

Coliseum. (Flavian Amphitheater). Rome I century n. e. (75-80).

Arch of TITA. Rome I century AD (81).

Apollodorus of Damascus. Trajan's Column. Rome II century n. e.

Pantheon (“Temple of all gods”). Rome I century n. e.

Baths of Caracalla. Rome III century n. e.

Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius. Rome (Capitol Square). II century AD

Portrait of Caracalla. III century n. e. National Museum. Naples.

Wall paintings at the Villa of Mysteries. Pompeii. I century BC e. (excavations).

Marcus Aurelius (121-180). Philosophical work “To Myself.”

Petronius (1st century; d. 66 AD) Satyricon: Roman.

Lucius Annaeus Seneca (14 - 65 AD) Tragedy "Medea".

Publius Virgil Maro (70 BC - 19 AD) Poem "Aeneid".

Martial (c. 40-104), Horace, Ovid. Poetry.

Ancient culture- a unique phenomenon that has given rise to general cultural values ​​in literally all areas of spiritual and material activity. The distinctive features of ancient Greek culture: spiritual diversity, mobility and freedom - allowed the Greeks to reach unprecedented heights before peoples imitated the Greeks, building a culture according to the models they created. Developing under the influence of early civilization, the culture of antiquity made a huge contribution to the development of world culture. The monuments of architecture and sculpture that have reached us, masterpieces of painting and poetry, are evidence of a high level of cultural development. They have significance not only as works of art, but also social and moral significance. And now the thoughts formulated in them about good, evil, honor and dishonor are modern. On the basis of ancient culture, categories of scientific thinking first appeared and began to develop; the contribution of antiquity to the development of astronomy and theoretical mathematics was great. That is why ancient philosophy and science played such an important role in the emergence of modern science and the development of technology. The ancient world gave examples of the republican system, democracy, and showed the image of a real citizen who knows how to intelligently combine rights and responsibilities.

conclusions

In general, ancient culture was characterized by a rational (theoretical) approach to understanding the world and at the same time its socio-aesthetic perception, harmonious logic and individual originality in solving socio-practical and theoretical problems. In this way, Ancient Greece differed from the East, where the development of culture proceeded mainly in the form of commenting on ancient teachings that became canonical, in the form of perpetuating tradition.

The anthropological contradiction between spirit and body was resolved by ancient culture in favor of the latter, giving it a “corporal” style. Through the body and thanks to it, cultivate in oneself accordingly harmonious spiritual qualities, seeing in it the presence of feeling and mind in their mutual unity and contradiction, but the weak development of individuality did not allow Greek culture to reflect the heights of manifestation of human emotionality and spirit. Modern researchers see the roots of this “corporality” in ancient slavery. In a slave-owning society, neither the full value of man nor man himself could be understood, and therefore man and his spiritual life were conceptualized according to the type of physical bodies or things. This is how the entire ancient worldview is constructed: science, religion, philosophy, art, social and political life. Ancient humanism glorifies only the physical perfection of man, but the subjectivity of the individual, his spiritual capabilities have not yet been revealed. The standard of harmony was the human body. Even the Greek gods are, first of all, eternal perfect bodies. From this follows the proportionality of the proportions of Greek architecture and the flourishing of sculpture. An indicative expression of the physicality of ancient humanism was the exclusive position of physical culture in the education system. However, in ancient society the biosocial nature of man was recognized, enshrined in Aristotle’s formula: “Man is a social animal.” The body was conceptualized as an aesthetic symbol of the Greek city-state, the “polis.”

Exalting the body, in general, ancient art and culture, as in the East, resolved the contradiction between the personal and the public in favor of the latter. From here Salus populi suprema lex (also Salus publica) – The good of the people is the highest law. A person was considered useful to society only thanks to his civic virtues. The contradictions between object and subject, as aspects of the human personality, can be called the main nerve of ancient culture. If in relationships with society the individual found some way out, then in relation to fate both the individual and society were only objects, blind instruments of Fate. The idea of ​​the inexorability of Fate is closely connected with ancient slavery, for in the ancient world free people thought of themselves as slaves of the general world order.

B List of objects World Heritage Eight such monuments were included. Three of them (Acropolis of Athens, Delphi and Vergina) are located in the northern, mainland part of Greece, three (Olympia, Epidaurus and Bassai) - on the Peloponnese Peninsula and two - on the islands of the Aegean Sea.

In ancient culture, the main problems of the universe: being and becoming, one and many, limit and infinite, number and magnitude, measure and essence, atom, matter, Space. They have not lost their significance even today, which has ensured cultural dialogue between different civilizations on a global scale. Antiquity created inaccessible cultural examples of enduring value and attractive power. Today, historians, philologists, philosophers, and cultural experts are turning to antiquity. “... Without the foundation that was laid by Greece and Rome, there would be no modern Europe,” wrote F. Engels.

1. Religion. The idea of ​​the omnipotence of a deity; lack of a single religion; connection of gods with specific policies; totemism, the idea of ​​the universal animation of nature; heroes as intermediaries between the world of gods and the world of people. Deification of incomprehensible phenomena of nature and social life; animism (belief in spirits living in all material objects); the later emergence of an anthropomorphic view of the gods; tribal and family cults; strong influence Greek religion; the similarity of the gods with the Greek ones; free admission into the pantheon of foreign gods; the importance of sacrifices; formalism and practicality of religion.

2. Attitude towards a person. A person is always a mystery not only to others, but also to himself. Therefore, human existence includes the desire to know oneself. Learning external world, other people, a person gets to know himself. A person’s attitude towards others and the Cosmos characterizes, first of all, the person who knows the most, his intentions, potentialities, values ​​and beliefs. In a certain sense, man is the goal of existence, which was emphasized by the Greeks who proposed the maxim “Man is the measure of all things.”

Dictionary of definitions for the topic

Animism(from Latin soul, spirit) - belief in the soul and spirits and their influence on the lives of people, animals, objects and phenomena of the surrounding world, one of the primitive forms of religion.

Anthropomorphic form of deities- the likening of deities to people, appears at later stages of the development of religious consciousness, demonstrates a certain measure of a person’s awareness of his place in the world.

Anthropocentrism(from Greek anthtropos - man and Latin centrum - center) - the view that man is the center of the Universe and the goal of all events taking place in the world.

Harmony(Greek correspondence, agreement, consonance) - an aesthetic category denoting integrity, unity, interaction of all parts and elements of the form. Animated harmony, filled with human feeling and meaning, is called beauty.

Hedonism(Greek pleasure) - ethical teaching, originally developed by the ancient Greek Cyrene school of philosophy and Epicurus; recognizes pleasure as the purpose of life and the highest good; defines good as that which brings pleasure, and evil as that which entails suffering.

Dipter(an ancient temple, unlike the peripterus, surrounded by two rows of columns.

Doric order- is distinguished by the heaviest proportions and has a relatively simple capital, consisting of a round cushion of echinus and an overlying slab - abacus.

Ionic order- lighter compared to Doric. The Ionic column has a characteristic capital formed by two downward-facing spiral volutes.

Kalokagathia(Greek - generosity) - the term that Plato used to designate the ideal of education among the Greeks, a combination of nobility, wealth, physical and spiritual abilities.

Canon- in the visual arts, a set of firmly established rules that determine the norms of composition and color in a work of art, a system of proportions, or the iconography of a given type of image.

Corinthian order– the lightest and most refined in its proportions. The Corinthian column has a tall basket-shaped capital.

Cosmology(from the word “kosmos” - Universe) - a world conceived as an ordered unity (as opposed to chaos); initially - the same as order, arrangement. The world was first called the cosmos by Pythagoras, who drew attention to the order and harmony reigning in it.

Cult(lat. Veneration) - 1) one of the obligatory elements of any religion, expressed in special magical rites, the actions of clergy and believers in order to have the desired effect on supernatural forces; 2) admiration for someone, something, veneration of someone, something, excessive exaltation (cult of saints, cult of personality).

Order– order in the arrangement of parts of ancient buildings. The main thing in the order is the columns standing on a stepped base; above the columns there is a ceiling - an entablature.

Totemism– oldest form religion based on the belief in a supernatural blood connection between representatives of a particular community and some species of animal or plant.

Fetishism(amulet, magic) - one of the ancient forms of religion, characterized by the worship of the cult of inanimate objects; belief in the supernatural power of things, amulets, talismans; deification of objects and phenomena.

The ancient culture of Ancient Greece developed over several centuries under the conditions of a special state system - city-policies. The differences between them were quite pronounced character- their citizens spoke different language dialects, used their own calendars and coins, and revered their gods and heroes.

However, from the VIII-VI centuries. BC e., the period of the emergence and flourishing of the polis system, quite distinct features of the Greek archaic took shape.

These include:

1 interactive, synthesizing character(interaction - interaction) of ancient Greek culture: it synthesized the achievements of different types of ancient cultures, avoiding blind imitation;

2 cosmologism, meaning that Space was the absolute of culture: it embodied the World, the Universe, order opposed to Chaos;

3 canonicity, with led to the observance of canons (rules aimed at achieving the ideal) in philosophy, art, construction, in the proportions of the harmonious human figure;

4 competitiveness as one of the features that characterized various spheres of life of Greek society - artistic, sports, etc. The first Olympic Games were held in 776 BC;

5 dialecticity, expressed in the unity of opposites (originally the term “dialectics” meant the ability to conduct a conversation).

The formation and development of the culture of Greek city-states (city-states) was based on achievements in the field of productive activities of the peoples of Ancient Greece - in the development of mining and metallurgy, construction equipment and architecture, ceramic and textile production, and the fleet.

With the fall of the polis (IV century BC), the decline of Greek culture began, which, nevertheless, retained its main achievements, giving impetus to the development of European culture as a whole.

Mythology. Greek mythology developed in the 2nd millennium BC. e. At this time, the pantheon of gods living on Mount Olympus and subordinate to the power of one god finally took shape - Zeus,"father of men and gods." Each Olympian deity was endowed with certain functions: Athena- goddess of war, the highest kinds of art, crafts, guardian of cities and countries; Hermes- god of trade; Artemis- goddess of the hunt; Aphrodite - goddess of love for beauty, etc.

The pantheon of gods was reproduced in architectural structures (Temple of Artemis, etc.). Humanoid images of gods became the main form of development of ancient art of Ancient Greece.
Religion. Ideas about the afterlife were of great importance in ancient Greek religion. The ruler of the kingdom of the dead was Hades, at whose feet is the dog Cerberus. The darkest part of Hades is Tartarus - an abyss where the souls of especially guilty people languish. The Greeks had no idea about man’s sinfulness before God.

Philosophy. Philosophy occupies a special place in ancient Greek culture. Exactly Ancient Greece was the stage of sociocultural development at which philosophy was born. Its origin, associated with the decomposition of myth, was based on the comprehension and generalization of scientific knowledge characteristic of that time, and the analysis of the world of everyday life. As a result, a hallmark philosophy - the desire for wisdom, for understanding the world and man's place in it. Famous philosophical schools were formed in Ancient Greece: Milesian(VI century BC) and Eleatic(VI - V centuries BC). Into history philosophical thought included the names of ancient Greek philosophers - Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, etc. Grandiose philosophical systems included the basic ideological principles, the doctrine of being and non-being, dialectics, theory of knowledge, aesthetics, logic, the doctrine of the state, etc.

Ancient Greek philosophy was the initial basis for all subsequent development of Western European philosophy.

The science. The natural scientific views of the ancient Greeks developed in close interaction with philosophy. They had character pre-sciences, in which knowledge was still included in the substantive and practical activities of man.

Ancient Greek science was united, undivided, not divided into philosophy and natural science and its individual disciplines. The world was understood as a single whole.

Ancient science immortalized itself in the history of spiritual culture with the creation atomistics. The atomic teachings of Leucippus and Democritus served as the ideological and methodological basis for the development of science until the 19th century. Aristotle's Physics was dedicated to the study of nature and laid the foundation for physical science.

In Ancient Greece, the biological knowledge. The initial scientific ideas about the origin of living organisms were developed by Anaxagoras, Empedocles and Democritus. The greatest physician of antiquity was Hippocrates. Aristotle wrote a number of biological treatises.

At the turn of the 7th-6th centuries. BC e. History arose as an independent genre of literature. The first historian of the ancient world is considered the “father of history” Herodotus, who devoted his works to descriptions of wars. In general, history, as a science, focused on the description of specific, individual historical events.

Art culture. Ancient Greek literature - oldest of European literatures, at the origins of which (8th century BC) are the Iliad and the Odyssey, attributed to the blind singer Homer. Lyrics and tragedy appear in ancient Greek literature.

Reached a high level of development architecture(temples of Apollo, Artemis, Zeus, Acropolis of Athens), sculpture(statue of Zeus, “Disco-thrower”, Aphrodite of Cnidus), arose theater. The theater of Greece is the oldest in Europe, reaching its peak in the 5th century BC. Drama and theater arose from rural holidays in honor of the god Dionysus, where solemn and sad odes were sung, from which tragedy was born, as well as cheerful songs, from which comedy was born. The theater was government agency, therefore, the state took upon itself the organization of theatrical performances, during which all the affairs of the city were suspended.

In the archaic era, an order system for the construction of temples arose (identifying load-bearing and weighty parts), which were built in honor of the gods.

In general, ancient Greek artistic culture and art were guided by the ideals of the sublime and beautiful.

From the second half of the 4th century. BC e. a new period begins in ancient Greek history and culture - Hellenistic period.

In a broad sense, the concept of “Hellenism” means a stage in the history of the countries of the Eastern Mediterranean from the time of the campaigns of Alexander the Great (334-323 BC) until the conquest of these countries by Rome. In 86 BC. The Romans conquered Athens in 30 BC. - Egypt. 27 BC - date of birth of the Roman Empire.

Hellenistic culture was not uniform. The cultural life of various centers differed depending on the level of the economy, the development of social relations, the ratio ethnic groups. What was common was that the classic examples of social economics and political development were ancient Greek art and literature, philosophy, science, and architecture. Widespread scientific literature, associated with the names of Euclid, Archimedes, Ptolemy. Outstanding discoveries were made in the field of astronomy. So, in the 3rd century. BC e. Aristarchus of Samos was the first in the history of science to create a heliocentric system of the world, which he reproduced in the 16th century. N. Copernicus. Immortal creations are bright - Venus de Milo, Laocoon, etc.

In the 3rd century. BC e. literature developed in new cultural centers, mainly in Alexandria, where there was one of the best libraries - the Alexandrian library.

Ancient Greece is the cradle of European civilization; all its achievements are fundamentally associated with the ideas and images of ancient Greek culture. The culture of Ancient Greece contained the origins of all subsequent achievements of European culture in the field of philosophy, natural sciences, literature, and art. Many industries modern science grew up on the basis of the works of ancient Greek scientists and philosophers.

Ancient culture (from the Latin “antiquus” - “ancient”) - a set of ideals, norms, values, ideas and traditions - all directions of Greco-Roman antiquity in the field of literature, art, aesthetic, ethical, political consciousness, myth, religion, philosophy and science. The geographical framework of ancient culture is the territory of Ancient Greece and Rome, chronological - from the origins of the Cretan-Mycenaean culture (the turn of the 3rd-2nd millennium BC) to the first centuries of our era. However, the impact of ancient culture on the world goes far beyond these limits. Ancient culture is the cradle, the starting point in the development of European culture.

The following stages are distinguished in the development of ancient Greek culture:

· Creto-Mycenaean or Aegean (named after the Aegean Sea) - III millennium BC. e. - XII century BC.;

· Homeric period - XI-IX centuries. BC.;

· Archaic period - VIII-VI centuries. BC.;

· Classical period - from the end of the 6th century. - until the last third of the 4th century. BC.;

· Hellenistic period - from the last third of the 4th century. - until the middle of the 2nd century. BC.

Cretan culture itself cannot be called Greek, since it was created by the pre-Greek population of the island of Crete. Until now, scientists have not been able to determine which language group to classify the ancient inhabitants of Crete. The writing of the Cretans, the so-called syllabic Linear A, has not yet been deciphered. However, it is impossible to remove this island from cultural history ancient Greek society. The Greeks themselves traced their history back to Crete. The island of Crete repeatedly appears in Greek mythology, which glorified it with tales about gods and princesses in love, about heroes defeating evil forces, about the first flight of man (myths about Theseus and the Minotaur, about Icarus and Daedalus, about the abduction of Europa, etc.). The main Greek god Zeus himself was born on Crete.

The Cretan civilization is sometimes called a “palace” civilization. There were a number of city-states on the island. The center of each state was the palace. Remains of extensive palaces have been found in Crete. These are complexes of buildings grouped around a large courtyard. They are located very bizarrely, at different levels, connected by stairs, corridors, some going underground. The total area of ​​the most famous Cretan palace - in Knossos - is large (24 thousand square meters). The building was two or possibly three stories high; the palace had an excellent water supply system, terracotta baths, thoughtful ventilation and lighting. The Palace of Knossos made scientists recall the Greek myth of the Labyrinth. Excavations have shown that the artistic fantasy of the Greeks had a basis in reality.

The walls of the palace premises are covered with numerous frescoes. On them, as well as on stone and gold Cretan vessels, images of a bull are constantly found. Researchers believe that the image of a powerful and ferocious bull god personified the wild destructive forces of nature. In excavations there is also an image of another deity - the great Mother Goddess, who has different incarnations: either the formidable mistress of wild animals, or the benevolent patroness of plants. But nothing resembling temples has been found on Crete. Probably religious ceremonies were performed in sacred groves and caves.

Painting is the main decoration of Cretan palaces. It clearly shows the influence of the Egyptian artistic canon (for example, the type of figure construction). But behind the similarities, deeper differences are revealed. Instead of the strict geometricism of forms, symmetry, and the harsh majestic simplicity of Egyptian art, in Cretan paintings, ease, sophistication and whimsicality of forms, and asymmetry come to the fore. These qualities characterize both wall painting (in which very often there are images of women - “court ladies”), and decorative and applied products. Many household items found in the premises of the Knossos Palace were made to a high standard. artistic level. This is, first of all, ceramics - vessels of various shapes and various purposes. Marine motifs predominate in Cretan ceramics.

At the end of the 15th century BC. The island of Crete suffered a catastrophe. Its cities turned into ruins. Researchers have different opinions about the causes of the disaster. Many believe that the island was subjected to a devastating conquest by the Achaean Greeks from the Balkan Peninsula. Perhaps there was also a natural disaster involved - an earthquake, a volcanic eruption.

The Cretan culture disappeared, but for about three centuries the Mycenaean culture, close to it, existed on the Greek mainland. The Mycenaean culture (after the name of one of the excavated cities - Mycenae) was created by the Achaean Greeks, but was significantly influenced by the Cretan culture. However, Mycenaean culture was significantly different from Cretan. The refined, sophisticated culture of Crete was opposed by the harsh and courageous culture of mainland Greece.

The Cretan settlements had no fortress walls or military fortifications, while the city-states of Achaean Greece were protected by powerful walls made of huge stone blocks. The Greeks, unlike the Cretans, did not feel safe; their settlements were vulnerable from land. And the Achaean Greeks themselves were more warlike than the Cretans. Life was harsh, filled with wars that lasted for years. One of the military conflicts that lasted 10 years is described in the famous Greek poem “The Iliad”. Here myth intertwines with reality. Archaeologists have found the remains of the real Troy on the coast of Asia Minor. It is possible that Homer exaggerated the scale of this military campaign (according to the poem, almost all Achaean states, and the king of Mycenae Agamemnon was elected leader of the entire army). But the historical reality of this campaign is not in doubt among any of the researchers.

The severity and masculinity of Mycenaean culture was also reflected in the themes of wall paintings: scenes of war and hunting were favorites. The lightness and grace of Cretan fine art is disappearing. Ceramics have a simpler and more uniform pattern. Gold was widely used in Mycenaean culture. A variety of items made from this precious metal were found in the tombs of rulers: crowns, cups, jewelry and, most interestingly, golden death masks of kings. Weapons - bronze swords, shields, daggers - were inlaid with gold and silver.

Until the 50s of the XX century Mycenaean civilization spoke to us only in the language of majestic monuments of architecture and painting. But in 1953, scientists were able to read clay tablets from Mycenaean palaces. The writing of Achaean Greece was deciphered - the so-called syllabic Linear B. But the decipherment could not provide answers to all the researchers' questions. The texts of the clay tablets contain mainly information of an economic nature. Much in the history of Mycenaean culture and civilization remains unclear.

Like the Cretan, Mycenaean culture suffered a catastrophe. It was destroyed by the invasion of other Greek tribes - the Dorians - from the north of the Balkan Peninsula. The Dorians were at a significantly lower level of development than the inhabitants of Mycenaean Greece. Therefore, the period following the Cretan-Mycenaean era was called the “dark ages.” Another name for this period is Homeric. It is to this time that researchers attribute the creation of the poems “Iliad” and “Odyssey”, which are the most important source of information about the “Dark Ages”. The campaign against Troy took place in the pre-Homeric era (in the 13th or 12th century BC). But Homer narrates the events of the past against the backdrop of contemporary reality. From these poems, scientists draw information about religious beliefs, family, economy, traditions and other aspects of the life of the Greeks in a given period.

The evidence of the Homeric epic is significantly complemented and expanded by archeology. Excavation results show that the so-called Dorian conquest pushed Greece back several centuries. Instead of the polis system (a polis is a city-state), tribal relations are reaffirmed. Writing was destroyed (not a single inscription from this period has been found). Not a single large architectural monument has survived (obviously, they were built from wood or unfired brick). There are no monuments of sculpture or painting. In ceramic painting, the so-called geometric ornament reigns supreme, which is a sign of primitive art.

Thus, in many ways it was a time of cultural decline. But at the same time, according to most researchers, this was a period of accumulation of strength before a new rapid rise. The Greeks' mastery of iron smelting and processing was of great importance for the subsequent development of Greek society.

Archaic (from Greek word“archaios” - “ancient”) period, according to some researchers, is the time of the most intensive development of ancient Greek society. This is the period of the emergence and strengthening of the polis system, the construction of cities, the development of crafts and trade, and the formation of the internal Greek market. The greatest achievement of the archaic era was the creation of alphabetic writing. The Greeks borrowed the Phoenician alphabet, adding signs to indicate vowel sounds. The creation of alphabetic writing contributed to the gradual democratization of the education system. This made it possible over time to make almost all the free inhabitants of Greece literate.

It was during this period that the formation of Greek culture proper took place. The process of its formation was significantly influenced by three cultural factors: the Aegean culture (still preserved in Asia Minor), the culture of the Greeks - Dorians, Eastern culture(Egypt and Mesopotamia). In the archaic era, the Greeks began to recognize themselves as a single people, different from other peoples, whom they began to call barbarians. The Greeks called themselves Hellenes, and their country Hellas. The ethnic self-awareness of the Greeks found expression in some social institutions. Since 776 BC. The Olympic Games began to be held, to which only Hellenes were allowed.