Fine arts and architecture in the USSR. General characteristics and periodization of Soviet art. Brief characteristics of the periods Art of the period of revolution and civil war

Poster (from the Latin "plakatum" - evidence) is the most widespread type of graphic art, performing the tasks of visual political propaganda or serving as a means of information, advertising, and instruction.

Original posters are created by artists with printing production in mind. In some cases, the poster is printed from the author's printing plate (linocut, lithograph).

Strictly defined functions of the poster dictate the choice of visual means, working methods, and determine the special visual language of the poster and its dimensions. The poster, printed in huge quantities, is designed for the widest audience and is usually hung on the streets and in public buildings. The poster should respond very quickly to all socio-political pressing issues and call for action. Posters quickly replace each other and, having an effect for a relatively short time, should be distinguished by clear and clear language. The poster should attract the viewer's attention from a long distance. To a viewer who stops in front of a poster, it should become clear in an extremely short time what the poster calls for, what its purpose is; The poster should be perceived instantly. It is precisely these tasks that dictate the relatively large (for graphics) sizes of posters. In the name of brevity, clarity and expressiveness, the poster uses a particularly sharp typification of images and widely uses such conventionally decorative techniques as generalizing the image, simplifying color relationships, abandoning minor details, symbolic designations, and combining different scales. The text that constitutes a mandatory element of the poster must be extremely concise and understandable from the first reading (the only exception is instructional and educational posters). The text should not be mechanically attached to the image, but organically included in it. The nature of the font must correspond to the content of the poster and be easy to read. The inscription is an element of the poster composition for the artist. Of course, thinking about meeting all these requirements, the artist strives by all means to preserve the integrity and composure of the poster within the confines of a sheet of paper.

The types of posters are varied and are divided into several groups according to their purpose.

Political poster is the main, most important type of poster. It is one of the most effective forms of political agitation, embodying political objectives and slogans through visual means. The subject matter of political posters is unusually broad: in our conditions they are dedicated to the struggle to fulfill the tasks of building communism, the struggle for peace, call for the strengthening of the socialist camp, and are aimed at exposing enemies. Many posters are created in honor of revolutionary holidays, international events, etc. Satirical posters have acquired great importance. A satirical poster is almost always associated with a literary text. The particular popularity of these combative and poignant posters gave rise to associations of satirist posters ("Windows of Satire ROSTA", "Windows of TASS", "Combat Pencil", "Agitplakat").

An information and advertising poster solves the problem of information, notification of various cultural and educational events (performances, films, lectures, exhibitions, etc.) or the task of advertising - familiarizing consumers with goods, services provided by various institutions and organizations. An advertising poster in our conditions pursues the tasks of truthful and cultural information, assistance in choosing a product and cultivating the consumer’s taste. Theater and film posters have special qualities. Carrying out the tasks of advertising performances or films, they must simultaneously reflect the style inherent in this spectacle and the creative aspirations of its authors.

The educational and instructional poster pursues the goals of promoting scientific knowledge, working methods, various rules (safety precautions, sanitation and hygiene, fire safety, etc.), and also helps to solve educational problems. An educational poster, unlike other types of posters, contains a significant amount of text, a whole series of drawings and is intended for longer use. Educational posters serve as visual aids in the educational process.

The poster in its familiar form arose relatively recently - at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century. The modern poster was preceded by large-sized engravings and drawings, distributed from hand to hand, pasted on walls, and displayed in shop windows and windows. In 16th century Germany they were known as "flying leaves". Such propaganda images were widely distributed during the bourgeois revolutions of the 17th and 18th centuries in England, France and Holland. A similar role in Russia was played by large-sized lubok, as well as anti-Napoleonic sheets of 1812. With the invention of new methods of reproduction and the development of printing, the circulation of propaganda sheets increased. At the end of the 19th century, posters appeared that were similar to modern ones in purpose and appearance. Such great masters as T. Steinlen, F. Brengwin, A. Toulouse-Lautrec, K. Kollwitz and others worked on the creation of various posters. Among modern foreign posters, the works dedicated to the struggle for peace by A. Bertrand (Mexico) and G. Erni (Switzerland) stand out. Special mention should be made of the wonderful posters by artists of socialist Poland, significant and deep in content, made in excellent poster language (posters by T. Trepkowski, T. Gronovsky, A. Bovbelsky, Z. Kaya).

From the first days of Soviet power, the poster in our country received wide distribution and recognition as a vital, operational and deeply party art. Attaching great importance to the poster as a means of political propaganda, our party closely monitors its development and helps in every possible way to improve its ideological content and skill. Evidence of this is the resolutions of the Party Central Committee and all-Union meetings devoted to political posters. During the period of the civil war, the restoration of the national economy, and during the first five-year plans, the poster played a significant role and Soviet poster artists were in the forefront of the fighters on the ideological front. High examples of poster art are, for example, Moor’s posters “Have you signed up as a volunteer?”, “Help”. A. Deineka, M. Cheremnykh, N. Dolgorukov and other artists worked a lot in posters. The importance of the satirical posters “Windows of Satire ROSTA” was great, in the creation of which V. Mayakovsky, S. Malyutin, A. Radakov and others took an active part. Mobilizing their forces to defeat the enemy during the Great Patriotic War, Soviet artists worked especially hard and successfully to create posters that were distinguished by their passion and high patriotic spirit. Based on the model of the "Windows of Satire ROSTA" the "Windows of TASS" were created. In besieged Leningrad, the “Combat Pencil” association arose. Not only graphic artists, but also many painters worked on the posters. The posters of Kukryniksy, Efimov, Golovanov, Kokorekin, Dolgorukov, V. Ivanov, Toidze, Shmarinov, Serebryany will remain in the memory of Soviet people for a long time. In the post-war period, there were attempts to turn the poster into a kind of color photograph with text glued to it. Long quotes were printed in typeface on posters.

Standard, “prosperous” people-schemes with a “duty” smile on their faces appeared on the posters, almost unchanged, wandering from poster to poster. Having successfully overcome these mistakes, returning the poster to its best fighting qualities, experienced poster masters and young people are actively working in various genres of this art. In Moscow, Leningrad and other cities, satirical posters of the “Battle Pencil”, “Agitplakat” and other associations are very popular. The viewer is well familiar with the posters of Soviet artists V. Ivanov, Kukryniksy, N. Denisovsky, M. Gordon, K. Ivanov, V. Govorkov, V. Briskin, M. Mazrukho, K. Vladimirov, G. Kovenchuk and other artists.

The culture of the Soviet and post-Soviet period is a bright large-scale round of Russian heritage. The events of 1917 became the reporting point in the development of a new way of life and the formation of a new way of thinking. The mood of society in the 19th - early 20th centuries. resulted in the October Revolution, a turning point in the history of the country. Now a new future awaited her with its own ideals and goals. Art, which in a sense is a mirror of the era, also became a tool for implementing the tenets of the new regime. Unlike other types of artistic creativity, painting, which forms and shapes human thought, penetrated into people's consciousness in the most accurate and direct way. On the other hand, pictorial art was least subordinate to the propaganda function and reflected the experiences of the people, their dreams and, above all, the spirit of the time.

Russian avant-garde

The new art did not completely avoid the old traditions. Painting, in the first post-revolutionary years, absorbed the influences of the futurists and the avant-garde in general. The avant-garde, with its contempt for the traditions of the past, which was so close to the destructive ideas of the revolution, found adherents in the form of young artists. In parallel with these trends, realistic trends developed in the visual arts, which were given life by the critical realism of the 19th century. This bipolarity, which matured at the moment of changing eras, made the life of the artist of that time especially tense. Although the two paths that emerged in post-revolutionary painting were opposites, we can nevertheless observe the influence of the avant-garde on the work of realistic artists. Realism itself in those years was diverse. Works of this style have a symbolic, propaganda and even romantic appearance. The work of B.M. absolutely accurately conveys in symbolic form the grandiose change in the life of the country. Kustodieva - “Bolshevik” and, filled with pathetic tragedy and uncontrollable jubilation, “New Planet” by K.F. Yuona.

Painting by P.N. Filonov with his special creative method - “analytical realism” - is a fusion of two contrasting artistic movements, which we can see in the example of the cycle with the propaganda name and meaning “Entering the World’s Heyday”.

P.N. Filonov Ships from the series Entering into global prosperity. 1919 Tretyakov Gallery

The unquestioning nature of universal human values, unshakable even in such troubled times, is expressed by the image of the beautiful “Petrograd Madonna” (official title “1918 in Petrograd”) by K.S. Petrova-Vodkina.

A positive attitude towards revolutionary events infects the light and filled with a sunny, airy atmosphere creativity of the landscape painter A.A. Rylova. The landscape “Sunset”, in which the artist expressed a premonition of the fire of revolution, which will flare up from the growing flame of the judgment fire over the past era, represents one of the inspiring symbols of this time.

Along with symbolic images that organize the rise of the people's spirit and carry them along, like an obsession, there was also a trend in realistic painting, with a craving for a concrete representation of reality.
To this day, the works of this period contain a spark of rebellion that can express itself within each of us. Many works that were not endowed with such qualities or that contradicted them were destroyed or forgotten, and will never be presented to our eyes.
The avant-garde forever leaves its mark on realistic painting, but a period of intensive development of the direction of realism begins.

Time for artistic associations

The 1920s are the time of creation of a new world on the ruins left by the Civil War. For art, this is a period in which various creative associations developed their activities in full force. Their principles were shaped in part by early artistic groups. The Association of Artists of the Revolution (1922 - AHRR, 1928 - AHRR), personally carried out orders from the state. Under the slogan of “heroic realism”, the artists who were part of it documented in their works the life and everyday life of man - the brainchild of the revolution, in various genres of painting. The main representatives of AHRR were I.I. Brodsky, who absorbed the realistic influences of I.E. Repin, who worked in the historical-revolutionary genre and created a whole series of works depicting V.I. Lenina, E.M. Cheptsov - master of the everyday genre, M.B. Grekov, who painted battle scenes in a rather impressionistic manner. All these masters were the founders of the genres in which they performed most of their work. Among them, the canvas “Lenin in Smolny” stands out, in which I.I. Brodsky conveyed the image of the leader in the most direct and sincere form.

In the film “Meeting of the Membership Cell” E.I. Cheptsov very reliably, without contrition, depicts the events that took place in the life of the people.

M.B. creates a magnificent joyful, noisy image filled with stormy movement and celebration of victory. Grekov in the composition "Trumpeters of the First Cavalry Army".

The idea of ​​a new person, a new image of a person is expressed by the trends that have emerged in the portrait genre, the bright masters of which were S.V. Malyutin and G.G. Ryazhsky. In the portrait of the writer-fighter Dmitry Furmanov S.V. Malyutin shows a man of the old world who managed to fit into the new world. A new trend is manifesting itself, which originated in the work of N.A. Kasatkina and developed to the highest degree in the female images of G.G. Ryazhsky - “Delegate”, “Chairwoman”, in which the personal principle is erased and the type of person created by the new world is established.
An absolutely accurate impression is formed about the development of the landscape genre when seeing the work of the leading landscape painter B.N. Yakovleva - “Transport is getting better.”

B.N. Yakovlev Transport is getting better. 1923

This genre depicts a renewing country, the normalization of all spheres of life. During these years, the industrial landscape came to the fore, the images of which became symbols of creation.
The Society of Easel Artists (1925) is the next artistic association in this period. Here the artist sought to convey the spirit of modernity, the type of a new person, resorting to a more detached transmission of images through a minimal number of expressive means. The works of "Ostovtsev" often demonstrate the theme of sports. Their painting is filled with dynamics and expression, as can be seen in the works of A.A. Deineki "Defense of Petrograd", Yu.P. Pimenova "Football" and others.

As the basis for their artistic creativity, members of another well-known association - “The Four Arts” - chose the expressiveness of the image, due to the laconic and constructive form, as well as a special attitude to its coloristic saturation. The most memorable representative of the association is K.S. Petrov-Vodkin and one of his most outstanding works of this period is “The Death of a Commissar,” which, through a special pictorial language, reveals a deep symbolic image, a symbol of the struggle for a better life.

Among the members of the “Four Arts” P.V. also stands out. Kuznetsov, works dedicated to the East.
The last major artistic association of this period seems to be the Society of Moscow Artists (1928), which differs from the others in the manner of energetic sculpting of volumes, attention to chiaroscuro and plastic expressiveness of form. Almost all of the representatives were members of the "Bubnovy Volt" - adherents of futurism - which greatly affected their creativity. The works of P.P. were indicative. Konchalovsky, who worked in different genres. For example, portraits of his wife O.V. Konchalovskaya conveys the specificity of not only the author’s hand, but also the painting of the entire association.

By the decree “On the restructuring of literary and artistic organizations” on April 23, 1932, all artistic associations were dissolved and the Union of Artists of the USSR was created. Creativity has fallen into the sinister shackles of rigid ideologization. The freedom of expression of the artist - the basis of the creative process - has been violated. Despite this breakdown, artists previously united in communities continued their activities, but new figures took leading importance in the pictorial environment.
B.V. Ioganson was influenced by I.E. Repin and V.I. Surikov, in his canvases one can see a compositional search and interesting possibilities in coloristic solutions, but the author’s paintings are marked by an excessive satirical attitude, inappropriate in such a naturalistic manner, which we can observe in the example of the painting “At the Old Ural Factory.”

A.A. Deineka does not stay away from the “official” line of art. He is still true to his artistic principles. Now he continues to work in genre themes, and also paints portraits and landscapes. The painting “Future Pilots” well shows his painting during this period: romantic, light.

The artist creates a large number of works on a sports theme. His watercolors painted after 1935 remain from this period.

Painting of the 1930s represents a fictional world, the illusion of a bright and festive life. It was easiest for the artist to remain sincere in the landscape genre. The genre of still life is developing.
The portrait is also subject to intensive development. P.P. Konchalovsky writes a series of cultural figures (“V. Sofronitsky at the piano”). Works by M.V. Nesterov, who absorbed the influence of painting by V.A. Serov, show a person as a creator, the essence of whose life is creative search. This is how we see the portraits of the sculptor I.D. Shadra and surgeon S.S. Yudina.

P.D. Korin continues the portrait tradition of the previous artist, but his painting style consists of conveying rigidity of form, a sharper, more expressive silhouette and harsh coloring. In general, the theme of the creative intelligentsia plays a great role in the portrait.

Artist at war

With the advent of the Great Patriotic War, artists began to take an active part in hostilities. Due to direct unity with events, in the early years works appear, the essence of which is a recording of what is happening, a “picturesque sketch”. Often such paintings lacked depth, but their rendering expressed the artist’s completely sincere attitude and the height of moral pathos. The portrait genre is coming to relative prosperity. Artists, seeing and experiencing the destructive influence of war, admire its heroes - people from the people, persistent and noble in spirit, who showed the highest humanistic qualities. Such trends resulted in ceremonial portraits: “Portrait of Marshal G.K. Zhukov" brushed by P.D. Korina, cheerful faces from the paintings of P.P. Konchalovsky. Portraits of the intelligentsia M.S. are important. Saryan, created during the war years, is the image of academician “I.A. Orbeli”, writer “M.S. Shaginyan" and others.

From 1940 to 1945, the landscape and everyday genre also developed, which A.A. combined in his work. Plastov. “The Fascist Flew Over” conveys the tragedy of life during this period.

The psychologism of the landscape here further fills the work with sadness and silence of the human soul, only the howl of a devoted friend cuts through the wind of confusion. Ultimately, the meaning of the landscape is rethought and begins to embody the harsh image of wartime.
Thematic paintings stand out separately, for example, “Mother of the Partisan” by S.V. Gerasimov, who is characterized by a refusal to glorify the image.

Historical painting promptly creates images of national heroes of the past. One of such unshakable and confidence-inspiring images is “Alexander Nevsky” by P.D. Korina, personifying the unconquered proud spirit of the people. In this genre, towards the end of the war, a tendency towards simulated dramaturgy is emerging.

The theme of war in painting

In post-war painting, ser. 1940 - end In the 1950s, the theme of war, as a moral and physical test, from which Soviet people emerged victorious, occupied a leading position in painting. Historical-revolutionary and historical genres are developing. The main theme of the everyday genre is peaceful labor, which was dreamed of during the long war years. The canvases of this genre are permeated with cheerfulness and happiness. The artistic language of the everyday genre becomes narrative and tends toward life-likeness. In the last years of this period, the landscape also undergoes changes. In it, the life of the region is revived, the connection between man and nature is again strengthened, and an atmosphere of tranquility appears. Love for nature is also glorified in still life. The portrait is developing interestingly in the works of various artists, which is characterized by the transfer of the individual. Some of the outstanding works of this period were: “Letter from the Front” by A.I. Laktionov, a work like a window into a radiant world;

the composition “Rest after the battle”, in which Y.M. Neprintsev achieves the same vitality of the image as A.I. Laktionov;

work by A.A. Mylnikova's "On Peaceful Fields", joyfully rejoicing about the end of the war and the reunification of man and labor;

original landscape image of G.G. Nyssky - “Above the Snows”, etc.

Severe style replacing socialist realism

Art 1960-1980s is a new stage. A new “severe style” is being developed, the task of which was to recreate reality without everything that deprives the work of depth and expressiveness and has a detrimental effect on creative manifestations. He was characterized by conciseness and generalization of the artistic image. Artists of this style glorified the heroic beginning of harsh everyday work, which was created by the special emotional structure of the picture. The “severe style” was a definite step towards the democratization of society. The main genre in which adherents of the style worked was the portrait; group portraits, everyday genres, historical and historical-revolutionary genres were also developing. Prominent representatives of this period in the context of the development of the “severe style” were V.E. Popkov, who painted many self-portraits and paintings, V.I. Ivanov is a supporter of group portraits, G.M. Korzhev, who created historical paintings. The essence of the “severe style” can be seen in the film “Geologists” by P.F. Nikonova, “Polar Explorers” by A.A. and P.A. Smolinykh, "Father's Overcoat" by V.E. Popkova. In the landscape genre, interest in northern nature appears.

Symbolism of the era of stagnation

In the 1970-1980s. A new generation of artists is being formed, whose art has influenced to some extent the art of today. They are characterized by symbolic language and theatrical spectacle. Their painting is quite artistic and virtuosic. The main representatives of this generation are T.G. Nazarenko ("Pugachev"),

whose favorite theme was celebration and masquerade, A.G. Sitnikov, who uses metaphor and parable as a form of plastic language, N.I. Nesterova, creator of controversial paintings (“The Last Supper”), I.L. Lubennikov, N.N. Smirnov.

Last Supper. N.I. Nesterova. 1989

Thus, this time appears in its diversity and diversity as the final, formative element of today's fine art.

Our era has revealed a huge wealth of the pictorial heritage of previous generations. The modern artist is not limited by practically any framework that was decisive, and sometimes hostile, for the development of fine art. Some contemporary artists try to adhere to the principles of the Soviet realistic school, while others find themselves in other styles and directions. The trends of conceptual art, which are ambiguously perceived by society, are very popular. The breadth of artistic expression and ideals that the past has provided us must be rethought and serve as the basis for new creative paths and the creation of a new image.

Our master classes on art history

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The plan of “monumental propaganda,” adopted at the suggestion of V.I. Lenin, was the most striking expression of the general principles of the new art. V.I. Lenin saw the main goal of “monumental propaganda” as putting art at the service of the revolution, educating the people in the spirit of a new, communist worldview.

Along with the abolition of some monuments that “glorified tsarism,” it was ordered to mobilize artistic forces and organize a competition to develop designs for monuments in honor of the October Socialist Revolution.

Beginning in the autumn of 1918, the first works of “monumental propaganda” appeared on the streets of Petrograd, Moscow and other cities: monuments to Radishchev, Stepan Razin, Robespierre, Kalyaev, T. Shevchenko and others.

Many sculptors representing various creative movements worked on the implementation of the plan - N. Andreev, S. Konenkov, A. Matveev, V. Mukhina, S. Merkurov, V. Sinaisky, architects L. Rudnev, I. Fomin, D. Osipov, V. Mayat. The ideas of Lenin's plan also influenced the broader area of ​​monumental and decorative art - the festive decoration of cities, mass processions, etc. Prominent artists, including K. Petrov-Vodkin, took part in the decoration of the streets of Moscow and Petrograd on the days of the first anniversary of the October Revolution , B. Kustodiev, S. Gerasimov.

A characteristic feature of the fine art of the era of revolution and civil war was its propaganda orientation, which determined the meaning and place of its individual types. Along with monuments and memorial plaques, the poster became a mouthpiece for revolutionary ideas and slogans, speaking the language of allegory (A. Apsit), political satire (V. Denis) and then reaching its greatest heights in the classical works of D. Moore (“Have you signed up as a volunteer?”, “ Help").

“Windows of GROWTH” by V. Mayakovsky and M. Cheremnykh were also unsurpassed in their kind. The “telegraphic” language of these posters, deliberately simplified, was distinguished by its sharpness and laconicism.

Closely related to the art of posters were political graphics, which were widely popularized by the magazines “Plamya”, “Krasnoarmeyets” and other periodicals. Revolutionary themes also penetrated into easel graphics (drawings by B. Kustodiev), especially into wood and linoleum engravings. “Troops” by V. Falileev, “Armored Car” and “Cruiser Aurora” by N. Kupreyanov are typical graphic works of this time. They are characterized by intense contrasts of black and white style, increasing the role of the silhouette.

The era of revolution was also reflected in book illustration (drawings by Yu. Annenkov for “The Twelve” by A. Blok, covers and book signs by S. Chekhonin), but this type of art was more associated with new editions of classical literature, primarily the “People's Library” "(works by B. Kardovsky, E. Lanceray, etc.).

In portrait graphics, sketches of V. I. Lenin (N. Altman, N. Andreev) made from life were of particular value. A galaxy of major masters (A. Benois, M. Dobuzhinsky, A. Ostroumova-Lebedeva) developed landscape graphics.

Easel painting of the first post-revolutionary years, more than any other form of art, experienced pressure from the “left front”. The canvases “New Planet” by K. Yuon, “Bolshevik” by B. Kustodiev, etc. testified to the desire of their authors to reveal the historical meaning of what was happening. Allegory, characteristic of all Soviet art of the early period, even penetrated into landscape painting, giving rise to such a unique response to modern events as, for example, A. Rylov’s painting “In the Blue Expanse.”

Among other arts, architecture was in a special position, the capabilities of which during this period did not go beyond the design of new tasks.

20s

In the 20s There were many different groups among Soviet artists: the Association of Artists of Revolutionary Russia, the Society of Easel Painters, the Society of Moscow Artists, the Society of Russian Sculptors, etc.

Despite the fact that Soviet art was then of a transitional nature, it gradually developed a general style. In painting, classical traditions, and mainly the traditions of the Russian realistic school, acquire decisive importance. Artists are increasingly turning to modernity. Young painters also perform alongside older masters. This time was characterized by the works of S. Malyutin, A. Arkhipov, G. Ryazhsky in the portrait genre, B. Ioganson - in the everyday genre, M. Grekov, I. Brodsky, A. Gerasimov - in the historical-revolutionary genre, A. Rylov, N. Krymova, B. Yakovleva - in landscape, etc. The artists who grouped before the revolution around the magazine “World of Art”, former Cézanneists, changed their attitude to the environment, to the tasks of art. P. Konchalovsky, I. Mashkov, A. Kuprin are experiencing the flowering of their talent; Until recently, the stylized creativity of K. Petrov-Vodkin was filled with real, vital content; a new approach to the problems of figurative expressiveness is reflected in the works of M. Saryan, S. Gerasimov and others. The innovative tendencies of Soviet painting were especially clearly manifested in the painting “The Defense of Petrograd” by A. Deineka (1928).

Political cartoons occupied a prominent place in the graphics (B. Efimov, L. Brodaty, etc.). At the same time, the importance of book illustration, especially book woodcuts, is growing (A. Kravchenko, P. Pavlinov, etc.). Its greatest master, V. Favorsky, laid the foundation for a whole creative movement. The development of easel drawings made with charcoal, pencil, lithography or black watercolor was also successful (N. Kupreyanov, N. Ulyanov, G. Vereisky, M. Rodionov).

Sculpture of the 20s. continued to follow the ideas of Lenin’s plan of “monumental propaganda.” The range of her tasks expanded noticeably, and portrait sculpture achieved great success (A. Golubkina, V. Domogatsky, S. Lebedeva).

However, the main efforts of sculptors are still directed towards creating monuments. Unlike the first gypsum monuments, which were temporary, new monuments are constructed from bronze and granite. These include monuments to V.I. Lenin at the Finlyandsky Station in Leningrad (V. Shchuko, V. Gelfreich, S. Yeseev), at the dam of the Zemo-Avchala hydroelectric power station in Transcaucasia (I. Shadr) and in Petrozavodsk (M. Manizer).

Images of general significance were created by A. Matveev (“October Revolution”), I. Shadr (“Cobblestone - the weapon of the proletariat”), V. Mukhina (“Wind”, “Peasant Woman”), who already at that time defined the face of Soviet sculpture with their creativity.

After the end of the civil war, conditions favorable for the development of architecture arose. Its first-priority, most pressing task was housing construction (residential building complexes on Usachevaya Street in Moscow, on Traktornaya Street in Leningrad, etc.). But very soon the architects put urban planning problems, the construction of public ensembles, and industrial construction at the center of their attention. A. Shchusev and I. Zholtovsky are developing the first plan for the reconstruction of Moscow. Under their leadership, the planning and construction of the All-Russian Agricultural Exhibition of 1923 was carried out. A. Shchusev created the mausoleum of V. I. Lenin. Until the end of the 20s. According to the plans of Soviet architects, a number of buildings for various purposes were built (the Izvestia house by G. Barkhin; the State Bank of the USSR by I. Zholtovsky; the Central Telegraph by I. Rerberg), industrial complexes (Volkhov hydroelectric power station by O. Munts, N. Gundobin and V. Pokrovsky ; Dnieper hydroelectric power station V. Vesnin), etc.

One of the important aspects of the creative activity of Soviet architects was the desire to develop new forms of architecture that corresponded to new tasks, modern materials and construction techniques.

30s

The successes of Soviet painting of these years are especially fully represented by the new stage of creativity of M. Nesterov, in whose works (portraits of academician I. Pavlov, the Korin brothers, V. Mukhina, surgeon S. Yudin) the depth and relief of the image of human characters is combined with a broad general theme of creative work Soviet people. The high level of portraiture is supported by P. Korin (portraits of A. Gorky, M. Nesterov), I. Grabar (portrait of a son, portrait of S. Chaplygin), P. Konchalovsky (portrait of V. Meyerhold, portrait of a black student), N. Ulyanov and others. The theme of the civil war was embodied in the painting by S. Gerasimov “The Oath of the Siberian Partisans.” “The Old Masters” and “The Morning of an Officer in the Tsarist Army” by the Kukryniks (M. Kupriyanov, P. Krylov, N. Sokolov) were also written on historical subjects. A. Deineka (“Mother”, “Future Pilots”, etc.) becomes an outstanding master of paintings on a modern theme. An important step towards the development of the everyday genre is taken by Y. Pimenov (“New Moscow”) and A. Plastov (“Collective Farm Herd”).

The development of graphics during this period is associated primarily with book illustration. Masters of the older generation are working successfully in this area - S. Gerasimov (“The Artamonov Case” by M. Gorky), K. Rudakov (illustrations for the works of G. Maupassant), and young artists - D. Shmarinov (“Crime and Punishment” F . Dostoevsky, “Peter I” by A. Tolstoy), E. Kibrik (“Cola Brugnon” by R. Rolland, “The Legend of Ulenspiegel” by Charles de Coster), Kukryniksy (“The Life of Klim Samgin” by M. Gorky and others), A. Kanevsky (works by Saltykov-Shchedrin). The illustration of Soviet children's books received noticeable development (V. Lebedev, V. Konashevich, A. Pakhomov). A fundamentally important change compared to the previous period was that Soviet illustrators switched (albeit somewhat one-sidedly) from the decorative design of the book to the disclosure of the ideological and artistic content of literary images, to the development of human characters and dramaturgy of action, expressed in a string of successive friend images.

In book illustration, along with realistic drawings, watercolors, and lithographs, engravings, represented by the works of recognized masters such as V. Favorsky (“Vita Nuova” by Dante, “Hamlet” by Shakespeare), M. Pikov, A. Goncharov, also retain their importance.

In the field of easel graphics, the portrait genre came to the fore at this time (G. Vereisky, M. Rodionov, A. Fonvizin).

A serious obstacle to the development of Soviet art in these years was handicraft, tendencies of false monumentality, pomp associated with the cult of Stalin's personality.

In the art of architecture, the most important problems were solved in connection with the problems of urban planning and the construction of residential, administrative, theater and other buildings, as well as large industrial facilities (such as an automobile plant in Moscow, a meat processing plant in Leningrad, a heating plant at an automobile plant in Gorky, etc. .). Among the architectural works, the House of the Council of Ministers in Moscow (A. Lengman), the Moscow Hotel (A. Shchusev, L. Savelyev, O. Stapran), the Soviet Army Theater in Moscow (K. Alabyan, V. Simbirtsev) are especially characteristic of these years ), sanatorium named after Ordzhonikidze in Kislovodsk (M. Ginzburg), river station in Khimki (A. Rukhlyadyev), etc. The main aesthetic trend in the course of these works was the attraction to traditional forms of classical order architecture. The uncritical use of such forms and their mechanical transfer to modern times often led to unnecessary external pomp and unjustified excesses.

The art of sculpture is acquiring new important features. Strengthening the connections between monumental and decorative sculpture and architecture becomes a characteristic feature of this period. The sculptural work - the group "Worker and Collective Farm Woman" - by Mukhina arose on the basis of the architectural design of the USSR pavilion at the 1937 International Exhibition in Paris. The synthesis of sculpture with architecture was also evident in the design of the Moscow Metro, the Moscow Canal, the All-Union Agricultural Exhibition, and the USSR pavilion at the International Exhibition in New York.

Of the works of monumental sculpture of these years, the most important were the monuments to Taras Shevchenko in Kharkov (M. Manizer) and Kirov in Leningrad (N. Tomsky).

The sculptural portrait is further developed (V. Mukhina, S. Lebedeva, G. Kepinov, Z. Vilensky and others). Many sculptors are successfully working on a typical generalization of the images of their contemporaries (“Metallurgist” by G. Motovilov, “Young Worker” by V. Sinaisky).

Not only in Leningrad, but also in Moscow - the two most active artistic centers of the country - there are increasingly calls to contrast the Soviet poster with the Western one, and increasingly the familiarity of Russian artists with the works of their German colleagues, the achievements of French or American graphic artists, is seen as a harmful influence. Even such a master as Lissitzky, whose work in the 1920s. was closely connected with the world artistic process, once again emphasized in the preface to the catalog All-Union Printing Exhibition 1927 that it was the October Revolution of 1917 that contributed to the creation of new industrial graphics. Noting that in Germany the poster “was used politically,” Lissitzky still insisted that “only here it was molded into a clear social and artistic form.” .

Lissitzky’s theses about the innovative essence and social activity of Russian photomontage were vividly illustrated by posters at the 1927 exhibition Klutsis And Senkina. In their work, photomontage, the heated debate about which continued throughout the 1920s, acquired a special life. They knew how to give the sheets dedicated to the party's appeals and industrial plans a multifaceted plot and a special visual polyphony. Sharply, actively comparing fragments of natural, documentary photography with conventional graphic elements, these masters increased the scale of the poster form, giving it increased monumentality and even a certain epic quality.

Klutsis was a founding member association "October", whose declaration, published in June 1928, stated that all types of art - both traditional - painting, graphics, and "industrial" - posters, photography or cinema - should first of all "serve the working people" in the area " ideological propaganda,” as well as in the sphere of “production and direct organization of everyday life.” And almost all the sheets Klutsis, in which photographic frames are combined with font compositions ("From NEP Russia will be socialist Russia" (No. 14)) or in which color contrasts are vividly used ("Komsomol members, on the shock sowing!" (No. 15)) are dedicated specifically to ideological propaganda. Distinguished by their visual power and special dynamism, which was often created by unexpected visual accents (“The development of transport is one of the most important tasks for the implementation of the five-year plan” (No. 16)), the posters of Klutsis or his follower Senkin were perceived by many as those very “proletarian paintings” about which were written by constructivist theorists. It is interesting that the birth of some sheets was preceded - as in the case of easel painters - by a “study period”, a time of accumulation of natural material. They made trips to the industrial regions of the country, and in the Donbass, for example, they photographed expressive types of miners, who later became the central images of poster compositions (“Let’s return the coal debt to the country” (No. 13)).

Klutsis defended these theses during the discussion at the Institute of Literature, Art and Language at the Communist Academy, which unfolded thanks to the resolution of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks adopted in March 1931 "About poster literature". It stated “an unacceptably ugly attitude towards posters and paintings on the part of various publishing houses... which was reflected in the release of a significant percentage of anti-Soviet posters.”

In this regard, management of "poster products" was transferred Department of Agitation and Mass Campaigns of the Central Committee, a system of strict ideological review was introduced with the involvement of not only official censorship, but also students of the Institute of Red Professorship. It was also proposed to organize “preliminary discussions” at enterprises, where ordinary workers had to develop topics, as well as view sketches and finished “pictures and posters.”

Thus, the poster was one of the first to be subject to strict regulation by the party authorities, and artistic disputes ended in total ideological control.
A book was published in 1932 "For the Bolshevik poster", in the preface of which it was emphasized: “Comrade Stalin’s instructions require the front of the proletarian arts to give the toughest rebuff to all deviations from Leninism.” Here came the main instruction: “The first and main requirement that we must present to the poster is political, ideological saturation; it must contain content emanating from our reality in the dialectical-materialist interpretation of it.”

The style of the lubok had a great influence on what the first Russian political posters were, which appeared during the First World War (1914-1918) and the revolutionary events of 1917. Vera Panfilova, head of the fine arts department of the State Central Museum of Contemporary History of Russia, spoke to the BBC about the 1917 posters.

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After February 1917, representatives of almost all political movements, with the exception of the Bolsheviks and Menshevik internationalists, declared the need to continue the war until victory and loyalty to Russia’s allied obligations. In order to continue this war, the government needed monetary contributions from the population. In 1916, the so-called State 5.5% loan arose. After February 1917 it became the Liberty Loan. The Kustodievsky soldier has become a symbol: against the backdrop of red banners, he asks for money to continue the war. In the future, the soldier will be on almost all posters of 1917 - from February to October. Material by Alexandra Semenova, BBC Russian Service.

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Different style. Event poster. This is a kind of picture from TV. On the poster is Voskresenskaya Square and the building of the Moscow City Duma (later the Lenin Museum, and now the Historical Museum). Everything was in full swing here in March 1917. This is an event picture. Record an event, an impulse. Because the revolution was expected and was enthusiastically accepted. The population perceived the revolution as the beginning of a new era in the history of the country. The broadest masses supported February. And all this took place against the backdrop of an ongoing war. And hence the demand and development of graphics.

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It's not really a poster. This is an illustrated leaflet. Why is that? Because in Russia power is personified. Power comes from the leaders, from the leaders. Based on the personification and need to popularize the leaders of the new Russia, illustrated leaflets like these were published. Here are members of the Provisional Government, headed by Duma Chairman Mikhail Rodzianko. In the bottom row, third from left is the first socialist in the government, Alexander Kerensky. Kerensky was also printed in separate sheets; he was one of the most popular. The left movement actively promoted its own. His rating was very high. Here on the poster, on the leaflet - the Tauride Palace, flags, slogans. There are loudmouths in the back. With a bugle flag. Revolutionary car. Many men with weapons in their hands. Left. And the slogans of the left. And the Socialist Revolutionary slogans “Land and Freedom” and “In the struggle you will find your right.” There are no Bolsheviks here yet.

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This is a poster from the Parus publishing house, a leftist publishing house. It was known even before the revolution. Maxim Gorky stood at the origins of this publishing house. The publishing house published not only magazines, but also books, including Lenin’s works. Such famous poets and artists as Vladimir Mayakovsky and Alexey Radakov were brought in for left-wing posters. This poster represents the tradition of popular prints and, at the same time, a certain forerunner of comics. This is a story in a picture. First, who did the soldier protect before? These are bourgeois. And the soldier is forced to defend a system that is completely rotten.

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In March 1917, Nicholas abdicated the throne and at the same time a Provisional Government was created. And on this poster there is “Memoir of the People’s Victory.” The same revolutionary forces are here: the armed soldier, the armed worker. Removed ermine mantle. Kneeling Nicholas hands over the crown. Trampled scepter and orb. And in the background is the Tauride Palace, where State Duma deputies met. And the sun rises above it as a symbol of freedom. This symbol will then be repeated in posters. The revolution in this short period (until October) was presented as something bright, kind, sunny, but then, after October, with the beginning of the Civil War, the revolution ceased to be a young lady in white clothes.

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Poster by Mayakovsky's colleague at the Parus publishing house, Alexei Radakov. This is the so-called social pyramid. Social pyramid stories have been surprisingly popular since the early 20th century. The first social pyramid by the artist Lokhov was published in Geneva in 1891. And then redrawings and based on motives - many options were created. Here, too, there is an appeal to the traditions of lubok with a clear meaning for the broad masses. From above everything is covered with an ermine mantle. Remember what Nicholas II wrote about his profession during the All-Russian population census of 1897? He wrote: “The owner of the Russian land.” The most popular satirical stories before the summer of 1917 were anti-clerical and anti-monarchical, aimed specifically at Emperor Nicholas II and his wife Empress Alexandra Feodorovna.

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In the fall of 1917, the first general election campaign in history began in Russia. And she was fierce and uncompromising. Several dozen parties and associations, both political and national, took part in the elections. Among those taking part in the elections, the most numerous was the Socialist Revolutionary Party.

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"Democracy will defeat anarchy." This is the cadet party. An essential detail of the poster is the combination of animalistic and mythological images - a lizard (anarchy) and a knight on a white horse (democracy). Overload with text reduced the effectiveness of the impact on the viewer, which subsequently, to some extent, influenced the election results.

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Compare the previous poster with this one. Social Revolutionaries. The election campaign was carried out competently. The victory of the Socialist Revolutionaries was predetermined by such well-organized agitation. Everything is as it should be on the poster. Addressed to workers and peasants. Clear and precise slogans - “Land and Freedom”. "Let's break the chains and the whole globe will be free." According to the author’s plan, two streams of workers and peasants, when united, will definitely come to the polling station.

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As for the Bolsheviks, the RSDLP, they did not consider it necessary to pay attention to artistic propaganda - that is, to the poster. But they knew how to draw conclusions from mistakes. And when the Civil War broke out, all the forces of the “Reds” were thrown into political artistic agitation. The same Radakov, Mayakovsky, and others participated in the creation of the famous “Windows of GROWTH”, which became a Soviet “brand” and a classic of world poster art. And whites lost in terms of visual propaganda - there are still a lot of unnecessary details and a lot of text. No one will read Denikin's well-written, multi-column program on a poster.