Type of minerals originating in South America. Minerals of South America
According to the nature of the geological structure and the features of the modern relief, South America is divided into two heterogeneous parts: in the east there is the ancient, Precambrian South American platform; in the west there is the folded belt of the Andes, which has been actively developing since the beginning of the Paleozoic.
The raised sections of the platform - the shields - correspond in relief to the Brazilian and Guiana Highlands. Their rise was accompanied by the formation of individual plateaus and mountain ranges with steep, almost vertical slopes. The eastern part of the Brazilian Highlands turned out to be the most elevated and dissected, where blocky mountains - the sierras - arose. Highest point Brazilian Highlands - Bandeira Massif (2890 m).
The troughs of the South American platform correspond to gigantic lowland plains - the Amazonian, Orinoco, a system of internal plains and plateaus (Pantanal, Gran Chaco, La Plata), occupying the trough between the Andes and the Brazilian and Guiana highlands. The Amazon occupies a huge swampy lowland from the Andes to the Atlantic Ocean with an area of over 5 million km 2.
The Andean West is one of the highest mountain systems on the globe. In height it is second only to the Tibetan-Himalayan mountainous country. Twenty peaks of the Andes rise to a height of more than 6 thousand meters. The highest of them, the city of Aconcagua (6960 m), is located in the Chilean-Argentine Andes. But the Andes (South American Cordillera) are the longest mountain range on the planet (about 9 thousand km).
The formation of the Andes began in the Paleozoic, during the Hercynian folding. But the main mountain formation in the Andes is associated with alpine folding. Particularly strong orogenic processes occurred in the Cretaceous. As a result of folding during the Cretaceous period, the Western (Main) Cordillera was formed from Colombia to Tierra del Fuego. During the Alpine orogeny, the ancient Hercynian structures were broken into separate giant blocks and some of them were raised to significant heights (high plateaus of the Central Andes). This is evidenced by the eruptions of numerous volcanoes (Chimborazo, Cotopaxi, Huascaran, etc.) and strong catastrophic earthquakes (1960 - in Chile, 1970 - in Peru, etc.). The Peruvian Trench stretches along the western coast of South America for almost 5 thousand km, to which the epicenters of modern earthquakes are located. They cause giant sea waves - tsunamis, crossing the entire Pacific Ocean from east to west. The average elevation of the South American continent is 580 m. This is lower than in Asia, North America and Antarctica, but higher than in Europe and Australia.
The subsoil of South America is rich in minerals. Their distribution within the continent is closely related to geological structure. The richest reserves of iron ore are confined to the ancient shields of the platform - the center and outskirts of the Brazilian Highlands and the north of the Guiana Highlands. The total iron ore reserves of South America account for 38% of the reserves of foreign countries. Significant reserves of manganese and bauxite are concentrated in the ancient weathering crust of the uplands. Oil deposits are confined to the platform troughs, intermountain and premontane depressions, natural gas, hard coal.
The Andes mountain ranges have enormous reserves of rare and non-ferrous ores and precious stones. Chile shares second place with Zambia in the production of copper and molybdenum ores among foreign countries. Bolivia has significant reserves of tin. Colombia is figuratively called the “land of emeralds.” In addition, zinc, lead, antimony, tungsten, silver, platinum and gold are mined in the Andes.
Thanks to its unique topography, the subsoil of South America is exceptionally rich in deposits of iron and porphyry copper ores, tin ores, antimony and other ores of ferrous, non-ferrous and rare metals, as well as silver, gold and platinum.
The Andean troughs, Venezuela and the Caribbean contain large quantities of oil and natural gas deposits. There are also small deposits of coal on the continent.
In addition to oil and precious metals The depths of South America are full of such riches as diamonds, emeralds and other precious and semi-precious stones.
Features of the relief of South America and their impact on mineral deposits
South America is usually divided into two geologically different parts: the eastern, which is based on the ancient South American platform, with elevated territories in the Guiana and Brazilian highlands, and the western, along which stretches the longest land mountain range of the Andes. Therefore, the continent is rich in both minerals formed on the plains and plateaus, and rocks and minerals formed as a result of volcanic activity.
The Andes are rich in ores of ferrous and non-ferrous metals of metamorphic and igneous origin, including zinc, tin, copper, iron, antimony, lead and others. Also in the mountains there is mining of precious stones and metals (silver, gold, platinum).
The eastern highlands of the continent are rich in deposits of rare ores, from which zirconium, uranium, nickel, bismuth and titanium are mined, as well as deposits of beryl (a precious stone). The occurrence of ores and beryl is associated with volcanic activity and the release of magma to the surface.
Vast deposits of oil and natural gas formed in the platform troughs, intermountain and foothill depressions. Due to weathering processes earth's crust Aluminum deposits appeared in the bowels of the continent. And biochemical processes in a company with a desert climate “worked” on the droppings of seabirds, as a result of which deposits of Chilean saltpeter appeared on the continent.
Types of minerals in South America
Combustible minerals:
- coal (Colombia, Chile, Brazil, Argentina) is one of the most popular energy resources in the world;
- oil (Caribbean) - a liquid oily substance, the occurrence of which is confined to continental depressions and margins;
- natural gas.
Ferrous metal ores
Iron(fields in Venezuela). It is used for the smelting of steel and alloys, and is contained in minerals such as limonite, hematite, chamosite, magnetite, etc.
Manganese(fields in Brazil). It is used in the smelting of alloyed cast iron and steel.
Chrome ores(stocks in Brazil). Chromium is an essential component of heat-resistant and stainless steel.
Non-ferrous metal ores
Represented by reserves of bauxite, from which they produce aluminum(valued for its lightness, hypoallergenicity and ease of processing), vanadium And tungsten ores.
There are huge deposits copper ores(copper is widely used in electrical and mechanical engineering industries).
The bowels of the continent are rich lead(Peru), used in automotive, construction and other fields, nickel(used for the production of nickel steel and various metal coatings), zinc, tin(“tin belt” stretching through Bolivia), molybdenum, bismuth(metal is mined directly from bismuth ore only in Bolivia), antimony (used for the production of fire retardants).
Precious metal ores
The continent is rich platinum And silver ores, as well as deposits gold. Noble metals are exceptionally resistant to corrosion and have a special shine in products; they are used for the production of jewelry, expensive tableware and luxury items, as well as in industry.
Ores of rare and rare earth metals
Niobium And tantalum- rare metals used for the production of high-strength alloys and metal-cutting tools. Rare earth metals are found on the continent in lithium, niobium And beryllium ores.
Non-metallic minerals of the continent:
- sodium nitrate (Chile);
- native sulfur (Chile, Peru, Colombia, Venezuela);
- gypsum;
- rock salt;
- fluorites, etc.
- diamonds (Brazil, Venezuela, etc.);
- beryl, tourmaline and topaz are minerals formed in granite pegmatites (Brazil);
- amethyst (formed in quartz veins);
- agate (formed in Mesozoic basalts);
- emeralds (large deposit in Colombia).
Gems:
Resources and major mineral deposits
Let us briefly consider the main mineral deposits of South America. Chile ranks second in the world in molybdenum production, has the world's largest reserves of sodium nitrate (about 300 million tons, deposit in the Atacama Desert) and the largest copper reserves on the continent.
Coal mining in South America is concentrated in Colombia in the area of the huge El Cerrejon coal mine, where the mineral is mined open method. The largest oil and gas basin, Maracaibo, is located in the territories of Colombia and Venezuela, which is the leading supplier of oil on the continent. Oil is also produced in the territories of Ecuador, Peru, Argentina, Brazil, Trinidad and Tobago. Venezuela accounts for 4.3% of global oil production.
Rich in rare ores and minerals, Brazil has 13% of the world's tantalum reserves, and is also the largest producer of niobium raw materials on Earth (about 80% of the world's total).
Peru owns 11.4% of the world's copper reserves, and the continent as a whole has about 56 million tons of world iron ore reserves. The Andes are home to some of the largest deposits of silver, molybdenum, zinc, tungsten and lead on Earth.
According to geological structure and history geological development Within South America, there are mineral deposits of four main mineralogical eras: Archean, Proterozoic, Paleozoic and Mesozoic-Cenozoic.
The Archean era is manifested in the most ancient rocks of the base of the South American platform and its Central Brazilian, Guiana and Atlantic shields. Ceramic pegmatites are associated with the most ancient granites, and Archean iron ore itabirites and deposits of sulfur-pyrite ores were discovered in the greenstone belts.
The Proterozoic era is also evident among the metamorphic complexes of the base rocks of the South American platform and its shields. Granites of this age, often of the rapakivi type, are associated with pegmatites, including beryllium-bearing ones; with the Lower Proterozoic Minas Formation, composed of quartzites, crystalline schists and metamorphosed basaltoids, - large deposits
ferruginous quartzites of Venezuela and Brazil. The most significant among them are the deposits of the “Iron Ore Quadrangle” of Minas Gerais (Brazil).
The Paleozoic era manifested itself in geosynclinal-folded belts cutting through the platform part of South America, in a complex of basaltoids with sulfide deposits and in later granitoids accompanied by pegmatites. The formation of coal deposits (from Devonian to Permian) is also associated with the Paleozoic era. They are common in the cover of the South American platform and in blocks of Paleozoic rocks of the Andes. An example of the former is the Santa Catarina deposit in Brazil with coals of Late Carboniferous-Permian age, an example of the latter is Paranas in Peru and Huaco in Argentina of Early Carboniferous age. During the Mesozoic-Cenozoic era, diverse and rich Andean ore deposits were formed. The most intensive mineralization is concentrated in the Central Andes in the interval between 5° and 35°, where folded structures change their strike from meridional to northeastern and where such large deposits as Ceppo de Pasco (lead, silver, Peru), Llallagua, Potosi (tin, Bolivia), Chuquicamata (copper, Chile) are located.
The Central Andes are characterized by a distinct regional zonal distribution of mineral deposits. In the direction from the Pacific Ocean deep into the continent, 5 mineragenic zones are distinguished: the copper belt of the Pacific coast, the lead-zinc belt of Central Peru, the East Andean gold belt, the Bolivian tin-silver belt, and the oil and gas belt of the eastern foothills.
), antimony, tin (after Asia), bauxite, tantalum, apatite (after Africa), 3rd place in reserves of manganese ores, gold, phosphorites (map).
Within South America and the adjacent waters, 51 oil and gas basins are known. The total area is 8.1 million km 2, including 2 million km 2 of water area. tons of oil and 100 billion m 3 of gas) and Albacor (342 million tons of oil and 150 billion m 3 of gas).
Energy raw materials The total reserves of coal of all types in the countries of South America at the beginning of 1987 are estimated at about 52.8 billion tons (39.9 billion tons hard coals
and 12.9 billion tons of brown coal). Explored reserves amount to 15.4 billion tons (14.2 billion tons of hard coal and 1.2 billion tons of brown coal). The largest total reserves are found in Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela, and Chile.
The coal content of South America is associated with sediments of a wide age range - from Devonian to Quaternary, but the main industrial importance is for coal seams of Permian (Brazil), Cretaceous (Colombia, Peru) and Paleogene-Neogene (Colombia, Venezuela, Chile, Argentina) age. Coal-bearing sediments of Permian (possibly, partially Late Carboniferous) age are distributed mainly in the sediments of the cover of the South American platform, and Mesozoic-Cenozoic ones are found in the folded belt of the Andes. The coal basins of Rio Grande do Sul, Santa Catarina (Brazil), Bogota, Boyaca (Colombia), Zulia (Venezuela), Concepcion, Magellanes (Chile) and the Cerrejon (Colombia) and Rio Turbio ( Argentina). Lignite basins in South America are insignificantly widespread (Bolivia, Brazil) and are practically not developed. South American coals are mainly medium- and high-ash, mostly energy-grade non-coking or low-coking. uranium ores(in terms of metal) amount to 179.2 thousand tons. The bulk of the reserves (91.1%) of the continent are concentrated in Brazil, the rest in Argentina (8.6%) and Peru. The most important industrial significance are the Brazilian hydrothermal stockwork deposits of the porphyry type (Itataya, uranium content 0.01-0.2%; Lagoa Real, 0.09-0.65%). A subordinate role is played by stratiform infiltration deposits in sandstones (sandstone type) with a uranium content of 0.1-0.2% (Sierra Pintada, Argentina).
In Brazil, uranium mineralization has also been established in gold-bearing conglomerates (Jacobina). Significant uranium resources have been identified in uranium-bearing phosphorites of Brazil, Venezuela, Colombia, Chile (90 thousand tons), uranium-bearing copper ores of Chile (5 thousand tons), and carbonatites of Brazil.
Ferrous metal ores. Iron ore reserves amount to 56.2 billion tons, including confirmed 20.4 billion tons of Ca. 80% of the continent's reserves are concentrated in Brazil, 8.7% in Peru, 4.1% in Venezuela, 2.9% in Chile; Bolivia, Colombia, Paraguay, Argentina and Uruguay account for 4.2%. The main part of the reserves is associated with deposits of ferruginous quartzites (itabirites), represented by sheet and lens-shaped bodies of magnetite-hematite ores (Fe 45-67%) in the protoplatform depressions of the Brazilian platform. Among the largest are the following basins and fields: Minas Gerais, Morro do Urucun, Ceppa do Carajas, San Isidro, Ceppo Bolivar, Ceppa Grande. Skarn deposits (Fe 60%) of magnetite-hematite ores (Marcona) and sedimentary deposits (Fe 35-55%) of goethite-siderite ores (Pas del Rio) are also known.
Reserves of titanium ores (in terms of TiO 2), amounting to 90 million tons in rutile and 2.3 million tons in ilmenite, are localized in Brazil. Titanium resources were identified in primary ilmenite-titanomagnetite ores with a TiO 2 content of 18.5% (Campo Alegre di Lourdis), in complex anatase-perovskite-rutile ores in carbonatites containing 20-23.5% TiO 2, Pb, Nb, TR (Salitri, 35 million tons of TiO 2; Tapira, 40 million tons of TiO 2; Catalan, 11 million tons of TiO 2), as well as in placers (Mataraka). Some Brazilian bauxite deposits are characterized by a high TiO 2 content (40%). Identified resources of titanium dioxide in primary and placer deposits of Brazil, Venezuela, Uruguay, Argentina and Ecuador are estimated at 310 million tons.
Chromium ore reserves (9.8 million tons) are concentrated in Brazil, in the Campo Formoso stratiform deposit (average Cr 2 O 3 content 21%).
Taking into account four other similar deposits (Pasagen, Queimadas, Itapeserika, Luango), the identified resources of Brazil are estimated at 36.6 million tons with a Cr 2 O 3 content of 17-21%.
Non-ferrous metal ores in South America
Bauxite reserves amount to 14.5 billion tons, including confirmed 7.1 billion tons. The bulk of the continent’s reserves are contained in the depths of Brazil (41.4%), Venezuela (34.6%), Suriname (13) have significant reserves. .8%), Guyana (6.9%), as well as Colombia and French Guiana. The bulk of the reserves are associated with laterite-type deposits; Paragominas (reserves 1600 million tons, Al 2 O 3 50-52%), Trombetas (1500 million tons, Al 2 O 3 55-57%), Backhuis (400 million tons, Al 2 O 3 56-58% ).
Tungsten ore reserves (in terms of WO 3) amount to 271 thousand tons, including confirmed 206 thousand tons. The largest reserves are in Bolivia (60.2% of the total reserves of the continent), Peru (22.1%), less significant - Brazil (10.3%) and Argentina (7.4%). Over 80% of reserves are contained in vein quartz-wolframite (W, W-Sn, Sb-W-Sn) deposits of Bolivia: Chicote (reserves, WO 3 80 thousand tons, WO 3 content 0.8%), Bolsa Negra (11 thousand tons, WO 3 0.78%), Tasna, Chokhlya, Kami, Regina (20 thousand tons, WO 3 1.34%).
Deposits of skarn scheelite ores (WO 3 0.36-0.6%) predominate in Brazil (Brezhu, Boca di Lag, Barra Verde) and Argentina (Los Condores). Tungsten deposits have also been discovered in Chile, Venezuela, and Ecuador. Gold ore reserves (in terms of metal) amount to 4802 tons, including confirmed 964 tons. The bulk of the reserves (77%) are concentrated in Brazil;
Copper ore reserves (in terms of metal) amount to 311.9 million tons (37% of total world reserves, excluding Russia), including confirmed 169.9 million tons. The largest reserves are in Chile (78.3%) and Peru (11.4%).
Significant reserves are concentrated in Brazil (4.9%), Argentina (3.1%), Colombia (1%). The main share in the reserves is made up of deposits of the molybdenum-copper-porphyry type, the largest of which are: Chuquicamata, El Teniente, El Abra (8.1 million tons, Cu 0.6-0.7%), Escondida (7.3 million tons, Cu 1.9%), Ceppo Verde (6.9 million tons, Cu 0.6%), El Pachon (5.4 million tons, Cu 0.7%). The same type includes the deposits of Mocoa, Bolivar, Michiquillay, Bajo de la Alumbrera, Andina, Pantanos-Pegadorsito, Murindo, etc. Less common are the stratiform deposits of Salobu (6 million tons, Cu 1.3%), Jaguarari, Kypaca, as well as pyrite-polymetallic deposits in Chile, Peru and other countries.
Molybdenum ore reserves (in terms of metal) amount to 3.6 million tons (31.9% of total world reserves, excluding CCCP), including confirmed 2.8 million tons. The majority of reserves (67.5%) are concentrated in Chile, the rest in Peru, Colombia, Argentina, Brazil, Ecuador. The main deposits are represented by the molybdenum-copper-porphyry type, in the ores of which the Mo content is 0.014-0.03%.
Nickel ore reserves (in terms of metal) are 6.2 million tons, including confirmed 3.1 million tons. Over 1/2 of the continent’s reserves (67.3%) are concentrated in Brazil, the rest in Colombia (18, 9%) and Venezuela (13.8%). Nickel reserves are contained in lateritic nickel-cobalt deposits of weathering crusts of ultramafic rocks, the largest of which are: Ceppo-Matoso (670 thousand tons, Ni 2.9%), Vermelho (625 thousand tons, Ni 1.5%), Loma de Eppo (455 thousand tons, Ni 1.6%), Nikelandia (420 thousand tons, Ni 2.2%), Barro Alto, Santa Cruz.
Tin ore reserves (in terms of metal) are estimated at 1.8 million tons (25.3% of the total reserves of developed capitalist and developing countries), including confirmed 1.1 million tons. The share of alluvial deposits is 48.2% of the total stocks.
Industrial placers of cassiterite have been identified in Bolivia and Brazil, with the latter containing over 80% of the total placer reserves. Alluvial placers of Brazil form 15 large tin-bearing areas: Mapuera (Pitinga, Jacutinga deposits), Rondonia (Porto Velho, Jacunda), Telis Piris, Rio Iriri, etc. About 1/2 of the reserves are contained in rich placers (average cassiterite content in sands 2 kg/m 3) Pitinga deposits. Reserves of primary tin ores are associated with deposits of the Bolivian belt. Deposits of the predominant cassiterite-sulfide type are represented by arsenopyrite-pyrrhotite ores with a Sn content of 0.3-0.8% (Lallagua, Huanuni, Morococala), Sn-Pb-Ag ores (Chokaya) and Sn-Bi ores (Tasna, Chorolke, Chokaya ), as well as tin-silver ores with a Sn content of 0.5-1.7% (Ceppo-Rico de Potosi, Opypo in Bolivia and Pircas in Argentina). In the north of Bolivia (Caracoles, Viloco) and the south of Peru (San Rafael), deposits of the cassiterite-silicate type (Sn 0.2-1.8%) have been identified. In the north of Bolivia, in the Kelguani region, stratiform deposits of siterite-quartz ores (Sn 0.16-0.6%) of the “manto” type have also been established. Vein cassiterite-wolframite-quartz deposits (Chokhlya) are also known here. In the areas of the Opypo, Potosi, Lllallagua deposits, large deposits of stockwork tin-porphyry ores (40-100 million tons) with a Sn content of 0.2-0.5% are known.
Lead and zinc ore reserves (in terms of metal) are 9.6 million tons and 23.6 million tons, respectively, including confirmed 7 million tons and 15.8 million tons. The main reserves of the continent are concentrated in Peru (58 .3% of total reserves of lead and 50.9% of zinc) and Brazil (29.7% and 36.2%). Bolivia, Argentina, Venezuela, and Chile have significantly smaller reserves of lead and zinc. Among the largest deposits are: stratiform lead-zinc in carbonate and terrigenous rocks (Vazanti, 6 million tons with a Zn content of up to 45%);
metasomatic, associated with skarns in carbonate and volcanic-sedimentary strata (Aguilar, Pb 11.5%, Zn 16.3%, Ag 279 g/t; Ceppo de Pasco, Pb 5%, Zn 12%, Cu 0, 15%, Ag 70 g/t); lead-zinc veins in metamorphic, igneous and sedimentary rocks (Matilda, Pb 2%, Zn 18%, Ag 28 g/t; Morokocha, Bokira, etc.).
Silver ore reserves are contained in complex silver-containing deposits: pyrite-polymetallic and vein copper-polymetallic ores (Ceppo de Pasco, 70-400 g/t, Casapalca), molybdenum-copper-porphyry ores (Cuajone, El Salvador), gold -silver (El India), tin-polymetallic ores (Potosi, Opypo, Chocaya) and, to a lesser extent, in silver ores themselves (Pulacayo, Kayaloma) with a content of up to 550 g/t. Reserves of antimony ores (in terms of metal) amount to 422 thousand tons, including confirmed 382 thousand tons. Over 80% of the total reserves of antimony are concentrated in Bolivia, which ranks leading place
Rare metal ores. Beryllium ore reserves (in terms of BeO) amount to 457 thousand tons (42.2% of total world reserves, excluding CCCP), 84.7% of which are contained in Brazilian deposits associated with granitic pegmatites within the Main Pegmatite Belt of Brazil (Solonopouli, Galilee, Itinga), as well as with greisen (Boa Vista). Lithium ore reserves (in terms of Li 2 O) are 21.1 million tons (71.6% of the reserves of non-socialist countries) and are associated mainly with deposits of lithium brine (Li 2 O 0.2-0.3%) in Bolivia and Chile: Salar de Uyuni, Salar de Atacama, etc. Deposits of complex ores in spodumene-lepidolite pegmatites are known in Brazil (San Joao del Rey). Niobium ore reserves (in terms of Nb 2 O 5), amounting to 12.9 million tons (86.9% of total world reserves, excluding CCCP), are contained in carbonatite weathering crust deposits in Brazil (Arasha and Tapira).
The industrial pegmatite deposit Nazarenu is also known, in which (in addition to bedrock ores) niobium-tantalum placers are developed. Reserves of tantalum, industrial concentrations of which (0.02%) are established in all niobium deposits, amount to 31.1 thousand tons, or 20.7% of the total reserves of developed capitalist and developing countries. Zircon deposits occur in nepheline syenites and placers in Brazil and Argentina. The source of zirconium is also pyrochlore-containing ores of carbonatite deposits (Arasha).
Reserves of boron ores (in terms of B 2 O 3) amount to 14.2 million tons. The South American boron-bearing province within the Puna Plateau covers the border areas of Chile (reserves 5 million tons), Bolivia (4 million tons), Peru (3 million tons), Argentina (2.2 million tons). The greatest industrial importance are deposits of the modern lake type, in which concentrations of B 2 O 3 (0.25-0.5%) in the form of borax and ulexite together with K and Li salts accumulated in the brine of salt lakes (Salar de Atacama, Salar de Uyuni, Salar de Ascotan, etc.).
There are deposits (tinkal, kernite) in the sediments of fresh lakes (Tinkalayo, Porvenir) with a B 2 O 3 content of 16-18%. Solfatar deposits in high-mountain salars (drainless basins with dry or semi-dry salt lakes) are represented by layers of ulexite and colemanite, chlorides and sulfates of Na, K, Ca; B 2 O 3 content 10-23% (Laguna-Salinas). Potassium salt reserves (in terms of K 2 O) amount to 193 million tons, or 1.5% of the total reserves of developed capitalist and developing countries.
Most of
The continent's reserves (63.2%) are contained in deposits in the state of Sergipe in Brazil. K 2 O content 17-23%. In Chile and Argentina, reserves are associated with salt lake deposits.
Large deposits of rock salt are known in Argentina (Map Chiquita, Salar Juanita), Colombia (Pajaro, Salina Chita), Brazil (Maseio).
Phosphorite reserves are 7.5 billion tons. Almost 80% of the reserves are concentrated in Peru in deposits of easily enriched phosphate sands (Bayovar, Talara) with a P 2 O 5 content of 5-25%.
Deposits of granular phosphorites have been explored in Venezuela (Riesito), Brazil (Patos de Minas, Turiasu, Olinda) and Colombia (Sardinata, Asufrada, Cascajera).
Apatite reserves, amounting to 2.1 billion tons, are almost entirely (96%) localized in the Brazilian apatite province, confined to the zones of deep faults of the Brazilian shield. The deposits are represented mainly by complex apatite-containing ores (P 2 O 5 5-14%), occurring in unaltered carbonatites (Jacupiranga, Catalan) and in weathered carbonatites (Tapira, Arasha).
Nonmetallic industrial raw materials. Diamond reserves amount to 22 million carats.
Alluvial placers with a diamond content of 0.2 carats/m 3 are of industrial importance. Such deposits have been identified in Brazil (45.4% of the continent’s reserves) in the states of Piaui, Banya, Minas Gerais, Mato Grosso (Diamantina, Rio das Garzas, etc.), Venezuela - 43.2% (Guanyamo, Santa Elena and others), as well as in Colombia and Guyana.
Confirmed reserves of crystalline graphite amount to 32.6 million tons, of which 32.5 million tons are concentrated in Brazil, the rest in Argentina.
Industrial deposits of flake graphite are localized in the state of Minas Gerais (Itapeserica), the content of graphitic carbon is up to 30%.
Muscovite deposits in Brazil are localized mainly within the Brazilian mica region. Deposits of muscovite are also known in Argentina, mica-bearing pegmatites - in Bolivia, Guyana and Colombia.
From non-metallic building materials, numerous deposits of clay, limestone, dolomite, magnesite, glass and construction sands, marbles, granites, etc. have been identified in different areas of the continent. Precious and semi-precious stones
South America
In Brazil, the world's largest deposits of precious and ornamental stones are known: beryl, topaz, tourmaline - in granite pegmatites, amethyst - in quartz veins (Soledady, Livramentu, Curaray), agate - in Mesozoic basalts. The Muso emerald deposit is known in Colombia. The culture of using precious and ornamental stones in this region has a centuries-old tradition. In the territory of modern Brazil, Mexico, Colombia and Chile, jades were used long before the arrival of Europeans various shades
, lapis lazuli, turquoise, precious quartz, emerald; The technique of jade carving and inlay with turquoise and jade was well developed. The history of working with these materials in a number of cultures of pre-Columbian America goes back up to three thousand years (from the mid-2nd millennium BC to the 16th century AD) South America is the fourth largest continent, which stretches from the Gulf of Darien in the northwest to the Tierra del Fuego archipelago in the south. South America has a variety
biological resources
South America is perhaps the most diverse continent in terms of... It is home to the largest aquifer river on the planet (the Amazon), the driest place on Earth (the Atacama Desert) and the longest mountain system (the Andes). Geographic diversity results in extreme gradients in water availability and quality. Much of the north and northeast of the continent, including the Amazon and Orinoco basins, and the Colombian and Ecuadorian Pacific coasts, receive heavy rainfall while being relatively sparsely populated.
At the other end are the Pacific coast of Peru and northern and central Chile, which are densely populated but experience little or no rainfall except during El Niño events. Large economic activities take place here, including water-intensive farming and mining. In this region, water availability is a major constraint to socio-economic development.
The southeast of the continent, including southern Brazil, Uruguay, Paraguay and Argentina, is characterized by large-scale agriculture and livestock production, as well as increasing urbanization and intensive economic activity. The region is largely semi-arid, its variability and therefore water availability dependent on the South American monsoon.
Finally, the Andean mountainous regions present significant challenges for water resource management due to topographic barriers and the effects of local precipitation gradients. Regions of severe water stress exist, especially where high population densities and economic activity (e.g. in cities such as Bogota, Quito, La Paz) are associated with small river basins, erratic weather conditions, loss of natural wetlands and glaciers
Water quality is often influenced by topography, land use, and human economic activity. In the Andes there are problems with chemical composition waters place additional stress on natural water resources, which is often exacerbated by agricultural practices. This creates serious problems for the extraction and use of water, in particular for the production of hydroelectricity. In the humid tropics, problems of oxygen depletion and deterioration of water quality can occur in basins and braided rivers. However, the main problems of water quality deterioration are related to human activities.
Forest resources
A significant part of the reserves is concentrated in South America. In 2010, the mainland's total forest area (both natural and planted) was more than 874 million hectares, equivalent to 23% of the planet's forests.
The forests of South America are divided into two groups: and. Tropical forests make up 94% of the mainland's forests. Brazil is the most big country among tropical South American countries, and its forest cover is 60.9%.
The Amazon forest is the largest and most famous tropical forests in the world. They cover an area of 550 million hectares and are located in eight South American countries: Brazil, Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana and Suriname.
Outside the Amazon, tropical forests are found in coastal Brazil and northern and western South America (from Peru to Venezuela).
Today, America's rainforests are most threatened by large-scale agriculture (especially soybean farming), clearing of forests for cattle grazing, and logging. Each year, the Amazon loses more than 2 million hectares of forest due to these activities.
Forestry
Forestry ensures the rational use of trees and other forest vegetation. This is important economic activity for tropical South America, especially the Amazon River basin. Many valuable tree species, such as mahogany and rosewood, are native to the rainforest. Lumber from these trees is exported to foreign markets for furniture and flooring. For example, Chile is an important exporter of wood chips, plywood and paper pulp.
Mineral resources
South America is relatively rich. However, they are highly localized: few countries have a good balance between fuels and raw materials within their borders, and two countries, Uruguay and Paraguay, have almost no mineral wealth. However, South America's economy is heavily dependent on the mining industry.
Oil and natural gas
Large quantities of oil and natural gas are found in several areas of South America. The largest quantities are concentrated in the sedimentary layers surrounding Lake Maracaibo, in Venezuela and the adjacent coastal margin Caribbean Sea. Venezuela also has large oil and natural gas deposits in the El Tigre region. The country is one of the largest oil exporters in the world.
Since 1972, Ecuador has also been a major oil exporter, exploiting fields in the Amazon region east of the Andes. Argentina and Chile have significant oil reserves bordering the Strait of Magellan in Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego. Colombia is a self-sufficient country in oil and gas production, with the main reserves concentrated in the central Magdalena River valley and in the Putumayo region adjacent to the border with Ecuador.
Coal
South America is poor in coal. Colombia exports coal from the La Guajira peninsula and the lower Magdalena River basin south of Barranquilla, while Argentina receives high-quality coal from mines at El Turbio in the far south. Brazil produces relatively small quantities of coal in its southern states. In northwestern Venezuela and south of Concepción in Chile, there are also coal mines that once supplied fuel for steamships.
Iron ore
South America contains about one-fifth of the world's iron ore reserves. The most important deposits are located in Brazil and Venezuela. Iron ore is used in the domestic iron and steel industry, and a significant portion is also exported. The vast majority of the continent's reserves are found in the Brazilian states of Minas Gerais, Pará and Mato Grosso do Sul. In Venezuela, sites such as Cerro Bolivar and El Pao, at the foot of the Guiana Highlands, have ore reserves with a high percentage of iron.
In addition, important iron ore deposits are located in Marcona, Peru, and along a narrow belt in northern Chile. Also, lateritic deposits of iron hydroxides are widespread, mainly in Colombia, Brazil and Argentina.
Ferroalloys
Among ferroalloys, manganese is found in sedimentary forms in the Brazilian states of Amapa and Minas Gerais, as well as in mountainous Bolivia. It is also common, in much smaller quantities, in Argentina, Chile, Ecuador and Uruguay. South America is generally deficient in nickel, chromite (chrome ore), and cobalt, although small quantities of all of these minerals occur with other minerals in the central Andes of Peru, several areas of eastern Brazil, and the central and northern Argentine Andes. Chile has the second largest molybdenum reserves in the Americas, behind the United States.
Non-ferrous metals
The continent's copper reserves account for more than a quarter of the world's total and almost all of them are found in Chile and Peru.
Bolivia is one of the four or five largest tin producers in the world. Sedimentary deposits are located in the eastern part of the Andes. Significant tin deposits also occur in the western Amazon basin of Brazil, near the Madeira River.
Lead and zinc are scattered among many countries, but are found in greatest abundance in the central Andes of Peru, the state of Minas Gerais in Brazil, mountainous Bolivia, and the northern Andes of Argentina.
Bauxite is mined in Guyana and Suriname; There are also large production facilities near Ciudad Guayana in Venezuela and several locations in the eastern Amazon basin in Brazil.
Although South America was Europe's treasure trove for gold and silver from the 1530s to the late 1700s, the continent makes only a minor contribution to global production of these precious metals at the start of the 21st century.
Land resources
Of the total area of the continent (17.8 million km²), only one-eighth of South America is suitable for permanent use in the national economy (growing crops and grazing animals). The continent has some of the largest reserves of suitable arable land. However, such stocks were facilitated by large-scale deforestation (cutting down or burning of forest resources) on the mainland.
In countries with poor economies, people turn to agriculture to meet their daily needs. Poor farmers are destroying hectares of forests to use the land for agriculture. They also burn tree stumps to replenish the soil with nutrients needed to grow crops.
In poor countries in South America, agriculture is the only way people survive: they grow crops to feed themselves and sell something for profit. However, without tree protection, the nutrients in the soil are soon washed away by rain. This can happen in as little as three years and farmers are forced to move to new land as the depleted land becomes barren and unable to produce crops. Trees and shrubs are growing again in abandoned areas, but since the quality of the soil has deteriorated, it will take a significant amount of time for fertility to return.
"Intensive" farming in South America also occurs on a large scale. Large companies are clearing vast areas of land, often for cattle grazing, to fill the global market with beef. They also use the land for plantations, using pesticides and irrigation systems that harm the land. Nevertheless chemical substances to kill pests, also kill other animals and cause great damage environment. Rain washes toxins into the water system, killing fish, and the use of irrigation systems on banana plantations affects the natural water balance of the soil, which can have other devastating consequences.
Biological resources
Fauna
The South American fauna is particularly rich and diverse, thanks to a wide range of different habitats. In addition, due to the isolation of the continent from the rest of the world during Paleogene and Neogene times (about 66-2.6 million years ago), the South American continent is characterized by significant originality. Many animals belong to exclusive groups, and even at the family level there are high percent endemic species.
In South America this specification has reached a higher degree than in other parts of the world. However there are some common features between the fauna of South America and other continents as a result of past geological events. Ancient groups of animals, including molluscs, chilopods, some fish, reptiles and amphibians, show similarities to the animals of New Zealand. More late species, mainly vertebrates, migrated from North America. Animals such as armadillos, anteaters, porcupines and opossums migrated in both directions.
The Amazon rainforest is considered the richest in the world in terms of biodiversity. About 10% of the world's animal species are believed to be found in this area. Some of the most famous animals found in the Amazon include the tapir and many species of monkeys. Read about other animals in the Amazon basin.
Flora
South America has a unique flora. There are some similarities between the vegetation of South America and other continents as a result of past geological events. The northern tropical regions are considered the richest in flora diversity, while southern regions and the western Andean uplands are significantly depleted.
Livestock
Livestock farming is important industry Agriculture South America. Several areas stand out as major commercial livestock centers, notably the Pampas (Argentina, Uruguay and Brazil) and the Llanos Orinoco (Colombia and Venezuela). Brazil raises the largest number of cattle, followed by Argentina. Both countries export a large number of beef. Sheep farming is common in regions where raising cattle is difficult.
In areas of South America with cold climates, grazing animals such as sheep, llamas, alpacas and vicuñas thrive. These animals are raised for meat and wool, which are used in high-quality textiles exported throughout the world.
Crop production
Corn is a staple in countries around the world and is the most widely cultivated crop in South America. Argentina was a major exporter of corn in the 20th century. Beans, including several species of the genus Phaseolus, are widespread across the continent and form important element food in most countries. Cassava and sweet potatoes are also staple foods on the mainland. Cashew nuts, grown in most tropical countries, and Brazil nuts, collected from trees in the Amazon, are considered delicacies throughout the world. Cocoa, a native of the Amazon, was prized by indigenous peoples and is still grown in many parts of South America, especially in the state of Bahia, Brazil.
Europeans introduced a number of plants to the continent. Sugarcane has been grown in the humid tropics of South America since early colonial times, especially in northern Brazil, where it became the mainstay of the economy. In such circumstances, bananas have long been an important local food, and since the early 1970s, Ecuador has become one of the world's largest banana exporters. Mangoes, oranges, lemons and grapefruits are also common.
Among grains, rice, which was introduced from Asia, has become a valuable product in several countries of the continent. It is widely grown in the irrigated desert oases of the Peruvian coast, in the savannah and tropical regions of Brazil and Colombia.
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South America has truly enormous natural resources, both non-renewable and renewable and inexhaustible.
The category of non-renewable resources primarily includes minerals. Their distribution throughout the region is subject to geological and tectonic patterns, which make it possible to distinguish three large structural parts within South America.
The first, largest in area, structural part is formed by the South American Platform, stretching from the Atlantic Ocean all the way to the Andes mountain system; It is based on the South American Plate. Very large basins of high-quality (65-70% iron) hematite and magnetite iron ores are genetically associated with the ancient shields of this platform, which come to the surface in the region of the Brazilian and Guiana plateaus. The largest of them is located in Brazil, in the state of Minas Gerais, whose name means “main mines.” The deposits in this basin contain both high-grade and relatively low-grade iron ores, which are also being mined. An example of this kind is what was widely known back in the 19th century. Itabir deposit, which contains both very rich ores and ferruginous quartzites - itabirites.
In the 60s of the 20th century, another large iron ore basin in Brazil, Carajas, with ore reserves of 18 billion tons and an average iron content of 66%, was explored and began to be developed. Another largest swimming pool located in Venezuela, in the north of the Guiana Plateau. A significant deposit of iron ore has recently been explored in Bolivia, on the western edge of the Brazilian plateau.
Within the Brazilian and Guiana plateaus there are also large deposits of manganese, already associated with the weathering crusts of the crystalline basement. And on the wet outskirts of these plateaus, as a result of recent weathering processes, very large bauxite deposits arose, forming a vast bauxite province stretching across the territory of Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana and Brazil.
The second structural region is the Andes mountain belt, stretching along Pacific coast South America is an area of young folding, part of the Pacific ore (metallogenic) belt, framing the coasts Pacific Ocean both in America and Asia. It is particularly rich in a variety of ore minerals, which in most cases owe their origin to igneous intrusions and ancient volcanism. Even an incomplete list of them includes copper, tin, iron, lead-zinc, molybdenum, tungsten, antimony ores, and precious metal ores. However, in terms of size and significance, copper and tin ores stand out among them.
Porphyry copper deposits are very typical for the entire American section of the Pacific ore belt. They stretch in an almost continuous strip from Canadian British Columbia to the southern regions of Chile. Within the Andes, they have been explored in Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Chile. But at the same time, approximately 2/3 of all reserves come from Chile. The average copper content of Chilean ores is 1.6%, which is significantly higher than in most other countries.
Bolivia stands out especially in terms of reserves of tin ores, where the tin belt stretches along the western slope of the Andes for a thousand kilometers. Among the numerous deposits of this belt, the most famous are Lllagua and Potosí.
The Andean belt is also famous for some non-metallic minerals, among which saltpeter occupies the first place.
The best conditions for the formation of saltpeter deposits were in the Atacama Desert, where they formed in drying reservoirs. Today, these deposits stretch for tens of kilometers with a thickness of layers from several centimeters to several meters, and they are located near the surface. The total reserves of nitrate in Chile are estimated at 250-300 million tons. This is approximately 98% of the world's reserves.
Many Andean countries They are also known for mining various precious stones. This primarily applies to Colombia, which stands out throughout the world in emerald mining.
The third structural part is formed by the marginal and intermountain troughs of the Andes, filled with sedimentary deposits. It is with them that the oil and natural gas fields explored in Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Argentina are associated. At the same time, approximately half of the total oil reserves in the region are accounted for by Venezuela. In turn, 4/5 of this country’s reserves are concentrated in the Maracaibo basin, which is located in the intermountain tectonic basin of the same name.
Land resources are primarily in the Amazon, Orinoco and La Plata lowlands, where there are also even larger tracts of unused land. In terms of the size of the land fund per capita (more than 5 hectares), South America is second only to Australia and the CIS.
Water resources. In terms of total river flow (10.5 thousand km3 per year), the region is somewhat inferior only to foreign Asia. Here is the largest river in the world - the Amazon, which annually carries about 7,000 km3 of water into the ocean. In terms of river flow per capita, Latin America exceeds foreign Europe, foreign Asia and Africa by five to eight times. To this we must add its hydroelectric potential, which amounts to almost 1/4 of the world's. There are 280 large reservoirs in South America with a total volume of about 900 km3.
Forest resources. In terms of total forest area (1260 million hectares), South America ranks first in the world, and forest cover here on average reaches almost 50%. (How can we not recall Valentina Tereshkova’s remark that, as observed from space, each continent has its own predominant color: Africa is yellow, Asia is dark brown, and South America is green.) Availability of forest resources per capita (2 .2 hectares) is also still the highest here (the world average is 0.6 hectares). Let us add that forest vegetation in the region is represented mainly by selva - tropical rainforests, which are distinguished by an extreme diversity of species composition.
Agroclimatic resources. In most of the region, the sum of air temperatures for a period with temperatures above 10 0C exceeds 80,000. In such conditions, heat-loving perennial and annual crops with the longest growing season - sugar cane, coffee, cocoa, and rubber - ripen.
