Classic styles in the interior. Baroque and classicism in architecture

architectural classicism baroque urban planning

Characteristics of each developed style does not present any particular methodological difficulties. Another thing is the analysis of the turning point between two specific styles, which is contradictory in its essence. How does such a fracture occur? We are interested not so much in the question of what causes it in a general sense, but in clarifying the basic patterns in the change of styles. In search of such patterns, we will deliberately allow some polemical sharpness of formulations in order to more clearly reveal the proposed point of view. The transition from Baroque to Classicism was one of the fastest in changing styles of domestic architecture. The end of the 1750s was still the heyday of the Baroque. The mid-1760s were already a time of widespread classicism. In an extremely short period of five to seven years, a complete change in aesthetic tastes occurs. Russian architecture Baroque XVIII V. was a historically conditioned, complex and original phenomenon that absorbed many traditions of Russian architecture XVII century, and a number of features of domestic architecture of the immediately preceding period - that is, the beginning of the 18th century, and the influence of the contemporary architecture of the main European countries. These very different components, however, formed a durable alloy that had features of unique originality. Both directions did not yet know their future names, but the essence of the stylistic differences and their boundaries are clearly visible in the examples of the best buildings created or designed in almost the same years. The emphatically rich decorativeness and dynamism of Baroque forms is contrasted with the slightly dry rationalistic architecture of early classicism. The most prominent buildings of the Russian Baroque - the Winter Palace of B. F. Rastrelli and the St. Nicholas Naval Cathedral of S. I. Chevakinskrgo, so typical in their overflowing bravura, were completed by 1762. At the same time, already in 1760 A. F. Kokorinov designs the Pleasure House near Oranienbaum - a work in which the principles of a new direction in architecture dominate. The plan, silhouette, and entire volume of the structure are designed very compactly, emphasizing the dominance of horizontal lines. The details are made in classic shapes and proportions. In the same year, A.F. Kokorinov, together with Zh.B. M. Wallen Delamot created the first version of the project of the Bolshoi Gostiny Dvor in St. Petersburg. This version, which became the basis for the final decision made two years later, already contained the idea of ​​a majestic business structure in its simplicity with the measured rhythm of two-story arcades, dissected by modest pilasters of the Tuscan order. In 1763--1764. Projects are being developed for the Academy of Arts (A.F. Kokorinov and J.-B. Wallen Delamoth), orphanages in Moscow (K.I. Blank) and St. Petersburg (Yu. M. Felten) - the first buildings specifically designed for educational purposes. Of these, the building of the Academy of Arts is best work the initial period of Russian classicism. Located on a critical site, with its main facade facing the main waterway of the capital - the Neva River, it contributes to the architectural organization of a significant section of the embankment. The building plan is based on a strictly thought-out functional process for the artists' training: the main working areas are located along the outer perimeter of the building and around a huge circular courtyard, which ensures that they are well lit. The surface of the walls is abundantly dissected, but the divisions with clearly defined order proportions are mainly planar in nature. A period of decline and gradual degradation did not precede a change in style. On the contrary, just at the moment of its greatest flowering, Baroque turned out to be unsuitable for solving new problems, and immediately buildings in the style of classicism appeared with amazing speed. Such rapidity in changing styles is not typical. It is, as already mentioned, a distinctive feature of this particular turning point - from Baroque to Classicism - and was caused by the general situation when artificially slow historical development began to intensively make up for lost time. The concept of Baroque as a holistic style ceased not only to dominate in architecture, but also to generally have any significant influence on its further development. Although certain features of the old system appeared for some time in certain elements of the buildings of early classicism, they were only relics that gradually became obsolete. Only in the provinces did Baroque forms continue to exist by inertia almost until late XVII I century The historical prerequisites for a change in style include material and ideological factors. The most important ones should be noted: the significant strengthening of Russia's military and political power, accompanied by the rapid growth of its economic potential.

No less important prerequisites for the change in style were the ideas of enlightenment, humanism, and ideals natural man, characteristic of all advanced thinking of the 18th century. The call for reason as the main criterion and measure of all achievements was heard louder and louder. The ideas of rationalism have received widespread development since the second half of the century.

In architecture, all these factors led to serious changes. The economic prosperity of the country has caused rapid growth in construction in all areas. Changes in the ideological order required a significant expansion of architectural themes and a different figurative content. Previously unprecedented topics and tasks constantly arose.

Meanwhile, Baroque architecture was distinguished by its thematic narrowness. The scope of architecture as an art was limited mainly to palace and religious construction. If it was necessary to create structures for other purposes, then they were developed in the same ceremonial, highly ceremonial forms, close to palace ones, an example of which is the project of the Gostiny Dvor in St. Petersburg, proposed by F. B. Rastrelli in 1757.

The development of baroque forms along the path of their further complexity could continue for quite a long time, but the very range of application of such forms could not be expanded. The possibilities of style came into conflict with reality. This determined his fate.

By the middle of the 18th century, there was a need to create various types of new public buildings or buildings that had no artistic significance during the Baroque period - for example, industrial, warehouse, and commercial buildings. New challenges also arose in housing construction. Finally, the city as a whole, as a social unit, received a significantly different characteristic than before and, in this regard, required a different planning and volumetric solution.

All this growth in demands took place on the scale of a gigantic country.

Traditional creative methods could not cope with such tasks. But similar, albeit simpler, tasks already faced architects at the beginning of the 18th century. The architecture of Peter the Great's time is characterized by clear and practical decisions based on clear rationalistic principles. The traditions of rationalism appeared in Russian architecture at the beginning of the 18th century, of course, not for the first time. These traditions have existed for a long time, but there were eras that were especially favorable for their development, and times when rationalism existed latently in architecture as a residual phenomenon of the previous period. Russian Baroque of the second quarter of the 18th century. also, the influence of the Petrine architecture that preceded him did not escape, and the rationalism of the latter entered with some individual elements into the stylistic features of a direction that was opposite to it in essence.

Even in the work of the leading master of the Baroque, Rastrelli, one can notice elements of rationalism. For example, the fantastically rich and complex decorative decoration of this architect’s palace buildings does not interfere with the simplicity and clarity of the plans.

In the works of D.V. Ukhtomsky and S.I. Chevakinsky, rationalistic tendencies manifest themselves even more noticeably. It is worth recalling the design of the Invalid House in Moscow, created by Ukhtomsky, or the bell tower of the St. Nicholas Naval Cathedral in St. Petersburg, the clear clarity of the architecture of which is so different from the ebullient gaiety of the cathedral itself that some scholars did not even want to recognize it as the work of Chevakinsky. Both architects were students of I.K. Korobov, whose activities partially coincided with the Baroque period. However, among the masters of this time, Korobov, one of Peter’s glorious pensioners, retained the most rationalistic orientation of his creativity. It was through Korobov that the traditions of rationalism were continued in the works of his many students and in the work of the youngest of them - A.F. Kokorinov - they were revived in a different artistic quality, rethought in the spirit of the tasks of the new architectural direction.

Rationalism as a desire for clarity, understandability, and consistency of the architectural image - the whole and its individual components - became the main factor in the formation of the new style. His principles required a particularly harmonious, logically integral artistic concept. This concept had already been created earlier in the classical schools of architecture of antiquity and the Renaissance. Architects began to carefully study the heritage of antiquity (in its Roman interpretation, the only one available at that time) and the Renaissance. Close attention to the classics became, as it were, a secondary factor in shaping the architecture of early Russian classicism.

Naturally, in the Russian conditions of those years, the study of the classical traditions of shape-making could only take place through familiarization with the theoretical works of Vitruvius, Andrea Palladio, Vignola and with uvrazhs, which contained measurement drawings or sketches of architectural monuments. The inadequacy of this method of familiarization was realized very quickly. It is characteristic that if the young B. F. Rastrelli at one time traveled abroad no further than Germany, where he only became acquainted with the experience of contemporary German architecture, then already in the first half of the 1750s the idea arose of sending the promising Gezel Kokorinov to Italy for the study of ancient and Renaissance architecture. Since 1760, the newly founded Academy of Arts began to regularly send its best students abroad, and charged them with familiarizing themselves with the monuments of architectural classics.

Finally, another factor that influenced the formation of a new style in Russia was the connections of Russian architecture with the contemporary architecture of other countries, among which France was at that time the leading country in all areas of ideology.

For Russian architecture, connections with French architecture became very significant in the first quarter of the 18th century, when J.-B.A. Leblon, invited to Russia, created here not only one of the fundamental planning projects for St. Petersburg, but also developed types of exemplary houses, in many ways defining the physiognomy of the young Russian capital.

The rationalist tendencies characteristic of that branch of French architecture, of which Leblon was a representative, coincided with the main direction of Russian architecture of the early 18th century. The change in the orientation of architecture in the post-Petrine period also led to a change in the nature of ties with French architecture. They began to enjoy the success of the Rococo tricks, which in France itself had by that time suffered a serious defeat. Competition for the design of the main facade of the Church of St. Sulpicius in Paris became the harbinger of a turn in the development of architectural ideas. It was at this competition that the principles of Rococo decorativism, brought to the highest degree of sophistication by J. O. Meissonnier, were rejected, and preference was given to the strict and classically clear composition of J. N. Servandoni, which was then mainly implemented in 1733-- 1745

Development public life in the 1750s led Russian architecture to focus on the advanced achievements of French architects. An important stage in the victory of classicism in France was the competition for the creation of Place Louis XV in Paris. As a result of several successive rounds of the competition (late 1740s - early 1750s), the project of J. A. Gabriel won, which marked the approval of new views on urban planning principles. For the first time in world history, the city square was designed in correlation and connection with the entire space of the city.

The success of J.-J. that soon followed. Soufflot at the design competition for the Church of St. Genevieve in Paris and Gabriel's construction of the intimate palace mansion Petit Trianon in Versailles already meant the final victory of the new direction in French architecture.

In Russia, the works of architectural theorists M. A. Laugier, J. F. Blondel and others were studied with interest and attention. It is characteristic that it was Blondel who was commissioned to design the initial design for the building of the Academy of Arts, intended for construction in Moscow (1758). Blondel's plan was distinguished by too obvious French national flavor and was still far from the consistent implementation of classical forms, which, among other reasons, played a role in the rejection of the project. But this was already an accident in the general course of history. Since the late 1750s, advanced French architecture has become closest to Russian architecture in terms of goals and aspirations.

Using the example of the transition from Baroque to Classicism, we can try to deduce some general patterns in the change of architectural styles.

A newly emerging style meets new requirements, and in this sense its path is always original and unexplored. The more innovative this neophyte is, the broader must be the traditions on which he draws. But at the same time, the emerging direction treats with understandable antagonism the methods of its predecessor, which at a certain moment revealed their inconsistency. Therefore everyone a new style seeks support in the traditions of art not of the immediately preceding period, but of a more distant past, and above all in the traditions of the “grandfathers”. After all, the previous style also denied the direction that existed before it, due to which each time the “grandfather’s” traditions become the main source of borrowing.

In fact: the architecture of Russian Baroque of the second third of the 18th century is much closer in spirit to the buildings of Rus' at the end of the 17th century than to the architecture of the era of Peter I.

For the same reason, the desire for enlightenment, utilitarianism and all-encompassing rationalism, characteristic of Peter's architecture, found its independent continuation in the architecture of classicism. Such an original building for a complex of scientific institutions as the Kunstkamera, conceived under Peter I, received neither further development as a new type of building during the Baroque period, nor even repetitions, even simplified ones. Meanwhile, the architecture of classicism began precisely with the creation of a structure of this kind: the building of the Academy of Arts united the highest art center, a museum, an educational institution of the “three most noble” arts with a boarding school and even a theater attached to it, artists’ workshops and residential apartments for teaching staff.

The Petrine era did not pay particularly close attention to palace buildings, but attached great importance to utilitarian construction, raising it to the level of real architecture. The Admiralty in St. Petersburg was decided not simply as industrial enterprise, combined with a defensive structure, but as a monument to the naval power of Russia. The building was very low and the material - half-timbered timber - was not at all monumental, but the very idea of ​​a wide, 400-meter-long structure, marked in the center by a tower with a spire, was the idea of ​​great architecture.

One of the major masters of Russian Baroque, S.I. Chevakinsky, in his position as an architect of the Admiralty Colleges, designed and built many utilitarian structures for the domestic fleet. But among these works of his there are no buildings similar to the Admiralty, significant in their architectural design. Having built the St. Nicholas Naval Cathedral, Chevakinsky created a joyful, jubilant hymn using the means of architecture. Nevertheless, in utilitarian structures the era did not require anything from him other than durability and usefulness.

It is characteristic that in the early 1760s, having begun the project of building timber warehouses on the island of New Holland in St. Petersburg, Chevakinsky developed a new technology for storing timber, and also created a construction plan, but could not cope with the figurative solution of the facades, and this part of the work was entrusted to to the architect of a new direction - Wallen Delamoth.

Rationalism, which forms the basis of the concept of classicism, also found an echo in the traditions of architecture of the early 18th century, although, as noted earlier, Russian Baroque architecture itself to some extent used these traditions.

Here I would like to emphasize that the most important traditions never die. They develop in an upward spiral. With each subsequent revolution, part of the movement, relatively speaking, takes place in the shadow. The dominant style at this time only tolerates such a “shaded” tradition, and often even uses it in the opposite meaning.

If the ideal of the Renaissance was a harmoniously perfect person, a person for whom there are no contradictions between the personal and the social, then the man of the 17th century is characterized by an endless clash of these principles; if the hero of works of art of the Renaissance was characterized by unity with outside world, nature, then the hero of the New Age realizes his dependence on the environment and external circumstances. The drama of reality and the collapse of the Renaissance ideal led to new forms of perception of the world. The optimistic realism of the Renaissance is replaced by a sense of the unstable position of man, which is characterized by one or another internal conflict: the clash of individual rights and public duty, rebellion against blind submission to the authorities of secular or ecclesiastical authorities, awareness of the contradictions of existence. It is increasingly difficult for the individual to find his place in the new relations of society, which needs less and less the all-round man of the Renaissance and more and more the human function. This tragic collision finds expression in two directions of thought, in two ways of relating to the world and, finally, in two artistic styles. - Baroque and classicism.

The origin of the term “baroque” is unclear, only the translation from Italian is known: strange, pretentious. It can be assumed, that baroque represents not only art style(Baroque is often considered only an art direction), but also a special way of relating to the world and with the world. It is associated with the crisis of the ideals of humanism, the socio-political upheavals characteristic of the 17th century. The Baroque mentality of a person is characterized by a feeling of confusion and confusion, a sense of the contradictory nature of the world, the impermanence of happiness, the omnipotence of fate and chance. The optimistic ideal of the Renaissance “is replaced by a pessimistic assessment of reality, and enthusiastic admiration for man and his capabilities is replaced by emphasizing his duality, inconsistency, and depravity”; “the discrepancy between the appearance of things and their essence is constantly being comprehended, the fragmentation of existence is felt, the clash between the bodily and spiritual principles, between attachment to the sensual beauty of the world and the awareness of the frailty of earthly existence.”

The emergence of the Baroque is most often associated with the Counter-Reformation. The fact is that after the turbulent events of the past, fierce religious wars, Europe was devastated and destroyed. In the midst of war-torn Europe, only Rome escaped religious storms and upheavals. It remained a stronghold of the Catholic Church, although suppressed in its influence, but still very strong, especially after the Council of Trent, so it was here that the desire to confirm the triumph of the official church arose. According to the modern French theorist E. Malle, the main ideas of the church of that time were: martyrdom, vision, ecstasy, death. These religious themes in the minds of people were connected with the meaning and good purpose of righteous existence. They could not exist only on a rational basis; they certainly had to be mixed with a strong emotion that impressed the believer and had a strong impact on any other person. This powerful emotional charge should have captured not only the mystical state of communion with the religious sacrament, but also the triumphant feeling of the victory of the church over its reformers. Therefore, the Baroque arose initially in religious art, especially in architecture. Both the Romanesque style and the Gothic style had well-defined rules for creating structures that were raised to the level of regularity. The lines of these buildings were clear and defined. Baroque is “a riot of curved, intersecting, iridescent stone masses that have lost their “stoniness” and seem to have acquired the properties of a viscous plastic material.” Gradually, Baroque moved from architecture to sculpture, painting and other forms of spiritual life.

The question may arise: how was such a rapid and dynamic (initially only artistic) style like the Baroque connected with the crisis of the spirit, how, within the framework of church art, was it able to compensate for the spiritual turmoil and feeling of confusion that we just talked about? It should be noted that the Counter-Reformation could not overcome religious differences - the reformers precisely demanded high morality in religious feelings. The Church in this case fought for power - earthly and spiritual. She needed apologists, spokesmen and simply parishioners. It was supposed to reign over the inner world of a person who had already tasted the dangers of rationalism, to determine the scope of sin and piety, as well as the fate of all categories of the population - from ordinary people to kings. It was possible to attract people into your fold by contrasting the harsh life of a Protestant with the bright entertainment of Catholicism. Therefore, in “Baroque art, even when it directly served the church, there is not much of what is called piety, despite the fact that miracles, visions, and mystical ecstasies are constantly depicted. In these ecstasies, sensuality, “carnality” and even direct eroticism appear too clearly” [ibid., p. 97].

One of the most famous Baroque theorists Emmanuele Tesauro(1592-1675) called the “principle of quick reason” as the main principle of “baroque thinking.” The fast mind lives by laws that are different from the laws of thinking; it is full of fantasies and metaphors, connecting the important and the casual, the serious and the funny, the funny and the sad. It intertwines nature and man, the divine and the created by human genius. Geniuses with a quick mind “generate the existing from the non-existent. Wit creates existing from the immaterial, and so the lion becomes a man, the eagle - a city. It merges a woman with the guise of a fish and creates a siren as a symbol of caress, connects the body of a goat with a snake and forms a chimera - a hieroglyph denoting madness.” In such a system of thinking, the boundaries of the most diverse phenomena gradually disappear, and in art there appears a certain disregard for expediency, what is called “common sense.”

These features of the Baroque were reflected in their entirety in the works of Caravaggio, Bernini in Italy, Velazquez in Spain, Van Dyck and Rubens in Flanders.

Creation Paul Rubens(1577-1640) especially clearly demonstrates the penetration of the Baroque into social life, its liberation from religious themes and its existence as a special mentality in the context of the culture of the 17th century. His paintings are dominated by eternal movement, tension, the struggle of people with animals, often fantastic, excitement and the triumph of life. He “made me admire natural health and natural strength. And all of this was successfully fused with the requirements of magnificent decoration, pomp, and praise of monarchs...” In the works of artists of this time, “the religious spirit imperceptibly slipped away” from art. “Those were the times of opera, cantata and oratorio, but also of theatrical ceremonies, pompous odes, florid speeches, long titles, long wigs, allegories and hyperboles in poetry, ponderous and intricate wit, emblems and metaphors” [ibid., p. 97].

In literature, this is expressed in the desire to liberate the imagination, to amaze and stun the reader, in a passion for unexpected images that bring concepts together and compare objects that are distant from each other. Here the most diverse forms of life intertwine, the principle is realized - from the great to the ridiculous one step, since in the Baroque they exist together, like other opposites: the beautiful and the ugly (for example, in sonnets dedicated to beautiful ladies, their lovely hair and the insects crawling on it can be described with equal admiration), enthusiasm and rudeness, and so on. At one pole of Baroque art there is the image of a rebel, free and unrestrained, not fitting into the usual boundaries of behavior, such as Don Juan, trampling on loyalty in love, loving every time like the first time, mercilessly killing his rivals, or lyrical hero works Cyrano de Bergerac(1619-1655). On the other is a puritan rebel, ascetic and strict, like the hero of the poem “ Lost heaven"great English poet John Milton(1608-1674). For the Baroque and its theorists, wit was mandatory as the ability to bring concepts together (which was considered one of the manifestations of reason), and the main qualities of such an ability were Versatility and Insight. Tesauro believes that Insight penetrates “... into substance, matter, form, chance, quality, cause, effect, purpose, sympathy, similar, opposite, identical, superior, inferior, and also in emblems, proper names and pseudonyms." Versatility quickly embraces all these beings and their relationships, it “connects and separates them, increases or decreases, deduces one from the other and with amazing dexterity puts one in the place of the other.”

Baroque as a lifestyle was more typical for court and aristocratic circles, but the common people were also characterized by some manifestations of this style, expressed in comic, parody or ascetically correct forms of behavior close to Protestant ethics.

Classicism developed and was most clearly expressed under the conditions of the absolute monarchy in France. This does not mean that it did not occur in other countries. Classicism, like Baroque, was immanent in the entire culture of the 17th century. If baroque, with its richness and variety of sensations, gravitates toward sensationalism as a way of sensory knowledge of the world, then classicism requires rationalistic clarity, an orderly method of dividing the whole into parts and sequential consideration of each of them. This requires inner harmony, a sense of proportion and peace of mind. The mentality of a person expressing a classicist orientation is characterized by the desire to unite around the monarch and orderliness. Memory of religious wars of the previous century and the desire for stability forced him to accept a strict hierarchy of absolutism and strict regulation of royal power.

Classicists in art are characterized by the creation of monumental works, the depiction of active heroes, full of vital energy and capable - thanks to the ability to tame the passions overwhelming them - to rise to the resolution of complex, tragic conflicts. Therefore, the theater gravitates towards tragedies based on historical subjects, in which the clash of duty and feelings always ends in the victory of duty. The greats worked in this direction French playwrights - Corneille(1606-1684) and Racine(1639-1699). But there was also a comedy of classicism, exposing the contradictions of the surrounding world, as evidenced by the creativity that has not yet lost its relevance Moliere(1622-1673).

The theory of classicism is characterized by the cult of reason, which connects this style with philosophical rationalism. Reason in classicism is the source and measure of beauty; for a consistent classicist the value work of art is largely determined by the degree of its logical harmony and clarity, the orderliness of its composition. This explains the tendency of classicists to portray as heroes people who, even in moments of the most difficult and stormy experiences, can think soberly, reason and subordinate their actions to the dictates of reason. The same desire for order dictated different types of art, depending on their specificity and certain rules, according to which these works should be created. These rules concerned not only the theme or plot of the work, but also streamlined its internal structure. For example, in drama there were the famous “three unities”: unity of place, unity of time and unity of action. The unity of place implied that all events take place in only one place, one set on the stage; the unity of time required that the action begin and end within one day; unity of action required that the central conflict be clearly defined and singular. He most fully outlined the normative side of the art of classicism. Nicola Boileau(1636-1711) in the poetic treatise “Poetic Art”, where he demanded that artistic inspiration be subordinated to reason:

You need to think about the idea and only then write.

It is still unclear to you what you want to say,

Don’t look in vain for simple and precise words...

The 17th century gave humanity high achievements culture in almost all areas of activity. But let us note once again that this was a time of contrasts: the splendor of the court of the “Sun King” Louis XIV was opposed by a beggar who had not only a tomorrow, but also a people of today; To the most magnificent minds of this century - a nobleman who does not know how to read and write and boasts of it. These contrasts give rise to a special drama of the time, which prepared both the ideas of the Enlightenment and the subsequent plurality in the development of the culture of modern times.

Differences between Baroque and Classicism.

In the era of classicism, which followed the Baroque era, the role of polyphonic polyphony decreased and came to the forefront homophonic polyphony
( from Greek "homos" - "one", and "fone" - "sound", "voice")

Unlike polyphony, where all voices are equal, in homophonic polyphony stands out one, performing main topic , and the rest play a role accompaniment(escort). The accompaniment is usually a system of chords (harmonies). Hence the name of the new way of composing music - homophonic-harmonic.

There is less ornamentation and decoration in music. The works have become more harmonious, clearer in structure, especially those written in sonata form.

In the era baroque in a musical work, each of the parts concentrated on expression and disclosure one, brightly drawn feelings, what was decided with the help of presentation one topic that changed (varied) throughout the entire period, and during the era classicism in one part of the work it was revealed many emotions, which were expressed through presentation and development two or more themes of different figurative content.

Early Baroque music (1600-1654)

The development of Italian opera by an Italian composer can be considered the conventional transition point between the Renaissance and Baroque eras Claudio Monteverdi (1567-1643).

The composer was born in the Italian city of Cremona in the family of a doctor. Monteverdi developed as a musician in his youth. He wrote and performed madrigals; played the organ, viol and other instruments. Monteverdi studied composing music from famous composers of that time. In 1590, as a singer and musician, he was invited to Mantua, to the court of Duke Vincenzo Gonzaga; later he headed the court chapel. In 1612 Monteverdi left his service in Mantua and from 1613 settled in Venice. Largely thanks to Monteverdi, the world's first public opera house opened in Venice in 1637. There the composer headed the chapel of San Marco Cathedral. Before his death, Claudio Monteverdi took holy orders.

Having studied the operatic work of the Renaissance composers Peri and Caccini, Monteverdi created his own operatic works. Already in the first operas - "Orpheus" (1607) and "Ariadne" (1608) - the composer managed to convey deep and passionate feelings through musical means and create intense dramatic action. Monteverdi is the author of many operas, but only three have survived - Orpheus, The Return of Ulysses to his Homeland (1640; based on the ancient Greek epic poem Odyssey) and The Coronation of Poppea (1642).

Monteverdi's operas harmoniously combine music and text. Operas are based on monologue – recitative (from Italian recitare - “to recite”), in which recited every word, and the music flexibly and subtly conveys shades of mood. Monologues, dialogues and choral episodes smoothly flow into each other, the action develops slowly (in Monteverdi's operas there are three or four acts), but dynamically. The composer assigned an important role to the orchestra. In Orpheus, for example, he used almost every instrument known at the time. Orchestral music not only accompanies singing, but itself tells about the events taking place on stage and the experiences of the characters. First appeared in "Orpheus" overture(French ouverture, or Latin apertura - "opening", "beginning")- instrumental introduction to a major piece of music. The operas of Claudio Monteverdi had a significant influence on Venetian composers and laid the foundations of the Venetian opera school .

Monteverdi wrote not only operas, but also sacred music, religious And secular madrigals. He became the first composer who did not contrast polyphonic and homophonic methods - the choral episodes of his operas include polyphonic techniques.
In Monteverdi's work, the new was combined with the old - the traditions of the Renaissance.

TO early XVIII V. has developed opera school in Naples. The peculiarities of this school are increased attention to singing and the dominant role of music. It was in Naples that it was created Bel Canto vocal style(Italian bel canto - “beautiful singing”). Bel Canto is famous for its extraordinary beauty of sound, melody and technical perfection. A bel canto performer must be able to reproduce many shades of voice timbre, as well as masterfully convey numerous rapid sequences of sounds overlapping the main melody - coloratura (Italian coloratura - “decoration”).

IN XVIII century opera became the main form of musical art in Italy, facilitated by high professional level singers who studied at conservatories(Italian conservatorio, err lat. conserve - “protect”) - educational institutions that trained musicians. By that time, four conservatories had been created in the centers of Italian opera art - Venice and Naples. The popularity of the genre was also promoted by opera theaters that opened in different cities of the country, accessible to all segments of society. Italian operas were staged in theaters in major European capitals, and composers from Austria, Germany and other countries wrote operas based on Italian texts.

A significant figure of the early Baroque period, whose position was on the side of Catholicism, opposing the growing ideological, cultural and social influence of Protestantism, was Giovanni Gabrieli (1555-1612). His works belong to the “High Renaissance” style (the heyday of the Renaissance). However, some of his innovations in the field of instrumentation (assigning his own, specific tasks to a certain instrument) clearly indicate that he was one of the composers who influenced the emergence of a new style.

One of the requirements imposed by the church on the composition of sacred music was that texts in works with vocals there were picky. This required a move away from polyphony to musical techniques where words came to the fore. The vocals became more complex and florid compared to the accompaniment.

He also made a great contribution to the spread of new techniques. German composer Heinrich Schutz (1585-1672), trained in Venice. He is the most famous German composer before Johann Sebastian Bach and one of the most important composers of the early Baroque period along with D. Gabrieli and C. Monteverdi. He used new techniques in his works while serving as choirmaster in Dresden.

Music of the mature Baroque (1654-1707)

The period of centralization of supreme power in Europe is often called Absolutism. Absolutism reached its apogee under the French king Louis XIV. For all of Europe, Louis's court was a role model. Including music performed at court. The increased availability of musical instruments (especially keyboards) gave impetus to the development chamber music (from Italian camera - “room”), performed in small spaces or at home.

Mature Baroque is different from the early widespread spread of the new polyphonic style ( free writing) and increased division musical forms, especially in opera. As in literature, the opportunity to have a large circulation print musical works led to an expansion of the audience; exchange between centers of musical culture intensified.

In music theory, the mature Baroque is defined by composers' focus on harmony and attempts to create coherent systems of musical instruction.
In subsequent years this led to the emergence of many theoretical works A remarkable example of such activity is the work of the late Baroque period - “Gradus ad Parnassum” (Russian: Steps to Parnassus), published in 1725 by Johann Joseph Fuchs(German: Johann Joseph Fux) (1660-1741), Austrian theorist and composer. This work, which systematized the theory of counterpoint, was the most important tool for the study of counterpoint almost until the end of the 19th century.

An outstanding representative of the court composers of the court of Louis XIV was Giovanni Battista Lulli (1632-1687). (Jean-Baptiste). Already at the age of 21 he received the title of “court composer instrumental music" Lully's creative work was closely connected with the theater from the very beginning. Following the organization of the court chamber music and by composing “airs de cour” (court arias) he began to write ballet music. Louis XIV himself danced in ballets, which were then the favorite entertainment of the court nobility. Lully was an excellent dancer. He had the opportunity to participate in productions, dancing with the king. He is famous for his joint working with Moliere, for whose plays he wrote music. But the main thing in Lully’s work was still writing operas. Surprisingly, Lully created a complete type French opera; the so-called lyrical tragedy in France (French tragedie lyrique), and achieved an undoubted creative maturity in the first years of his work at the opera house. Lully often used the contrast between the majestic sound of the orchestral section and the simple recitatives and arias. Lully's musical language is not very complex, but it certainly new: clarity of harmony, rhythmic energy, clarity of division of form, purity of texture speak of the victory of the principles of homophonic thinking. To a large extent, his success was also facilitated by his ability to select musicians for the orchestra and his work with them (he conducted rehearsals himself). An integral element of his work was attention to harmony and the solo instrument.

Composer and violinist Arcangelo Corelli(1653-1713) known for his work on the development of the concerto grosso genre (concerto grosso - " big concert") . Corelli was one of the first composers to have his works published and performed throughout Europe. Like the operatic works of J.B. Lully, the concerto grosso genre is built on a contrasting comparison of the sound of small solo orchestra groups and the sound of a full orchestra. The music is built on sharp transitions from loud-sounding parts to quiet ones, fast passages are contrasted with slow ones. Among Arcangelo Corelli's followers was Antonio Vivaldi, who later composed hundreds of works written in Corelli's favorite forms: trio sonatas and concertos.

IN England mature baroque marked by brilliant genius Henry Purcell(1659-1695). He died young, at the age of 36, having written a large number of works and become widely known during his lifetime. Purcell was familiar with the work of Corelli and other Italian composers of the Baroque era. During his short life, Purcell wrote many vocal, instrumental, musical and theatrical works, the most significant of which was opera "Dido and Aeneas"(1689). This is the first English national opera. She was ordered by a dance teacher from a boarding school for noble maidens. The private nature of the order influenced the appearance of the work: in contrast to the monumental operas of Monteverdi or Lully, Purcell's composition small in size, the action develops rapidly. The opera's libretto (author Nicholas Tate) was written based on the heroic epic "Aeneid" by the Roman poet Virgil.

In Virgil, one of the defenders of Troy, Aeneas, sets off to wander after the fall of the city. A storm washes his ship to the shores of Africa; here he meets Dido, queen of Carthage. Dido fell in love with Aeneas and, when the hero left her at the behest of the gods, she took her own life. In Purcell's opera, the messenger who separates the heroes is sent not by the gods, but by forest witches (popular characters from English folklore). Aeneas mistook deception for a sacred duty to the gods and destroyed the most valuable thing - love.

A distinctive feature of Purcell's work is harmony. The composer had an amazing gift for creating perfect melodies - calm, majestic and impeccable in form. After Henry Purcell in English music until the 20th century. It is hardly possible to name equally brilliant masters.

Unlike the above composers Dietrich Buxtehude (1637-1707) was not a court composer. Buxtehude worked organist, first in Helsingborg (1657-1658), then in Elsinore (1660-1668), and then, starting in 1668, in the church of St. Mary in Lubeck. He made money not by publishing his works, but by performing them, and rather than patronizing the nobility, he preferred composing music to church texts and performing his own organ compositions. His works for the organ were distinguished by a wealth of imagination, an abundance of unexpected and colorful comparisons, and deep drama. Unfortunately, not all of his works have survived this composer. Buxtehude's music is largely built on the scale of his plans, the richness and freedom of imagination, a penchant for pathos, drama, and a somewhat oratorical intonation. His work has had strong influence on such composers as J. S. Bach and G. F. Telemann.

Late Baroque music (1707-1760)

The precise line between mature and late baroque is a matter of debate; she is lying somewhere in between 1680 and 1720. To a large extent the complexity of its definition is the fact that in different countries styles changed asynchronously; innovations already accepted as the rule in one place were new discoveries in another. Italy, thanks to Arcangelo Corelli and his students Francesco Geminiani and Pietro Locatelli becomes the first country in which Baroque moves from mature to late period. An important milestone can be considered the almost absolute primacy of tonality, as a structuring principle for composing music. This is especially noticeable in the theoretical works of Jean Philippe Rameau, who took Lully's place as the main French composer. At the same time, the appearance of the major work of Johann Joseph Fuchs “Degree ad Parnassum” (1725), dedicated to the polyphony of a strict style, testified to the presence in music two writing styles - homophonic-harmonic and polyphonic.

Forms, opened by the previous period, reached maturity and great variability; concert, suite, sonata, concerto grosso, oratorio, opera and ballet no longer had clearly defined national characteristics. The generally accepted patterns of works are established everywhere: the repeated two-part form (AABB), the simple three-part form (ABC) and the rondo.

Antonio Vivaldi (1678-1741)- Italian composer, born in Venice.
In 1703 he was ordained a Catholic priest. On the first of December of the same year, he became maestro di violino at the Venetian orphanage "Pio Ospedale della Pieta" for girls. Vivaldi's fame came not from concert performances or connections at court, but from the publication of his works, which included his trio sonatas, violin sonatas and concertos. They were published in Amsterdam and distributed widely throughout Europe. It was to these instrumental genres, still developing at that time, (the baroque sonata and the baroque concerto) that Vivaldi made his most significant contribution. Vivaldi's music is characterized by certain techniques: a three-part cyclic form for concerto grosso and the use of ritornello in fast movements. Vivaldi composed more than 500 concertos. He also gave programmatic titles to some of his works, such as the famous "Seasons". Vivaldi's career shows an increased opportunity for the composer to exist independently: on income from concert activities and publication of their works.

Domenico Scarlatti(1685-1757) was one of the leading keyboard composers and performers of his time. He began his career as a court composer; first in Portugal, and from 1733 in Madrid, where he spent the rest of his life. His father Alessandro Scarlatti is considered the founder of the Neapolitan opera school. Domenico also composed operas and church music, but his fame (after his death) was ensured by his works for keyboards. He wrote some of these works for his own pleasure, and some for his noble customers.

The most famous court composer of the Baroque era was George Frideric Handel(1685-1759). He was born in Germany, studied for three years in Italy, but in 1711 he left London, where he began his brilliant and commercial career. successful career an independent opera composer performing orders for the nobility. Possessing tireless energy, Handel reworked the material of other composers, and constantly remade your own writings. For example, he is known for reworking the famous oratorio "Messiah" so many times that there is now no version that can be called the original. Although his financial fortunes waxed and waned, his fame grew from published works for keyboards, ceremonial music, operas, concerto grossos, and oratorios. After his death, he was recognized as a leading European composer, and was studied by musicians of the classical era. During his life, Handel wrote about 50 operas (“Almira”, “Agrippina”, “Rinaldo”, “Julius Caesar”, etc.), 23 oratorios (“Messiah”, “Samson”, “Judas Macovei”, “Hercules”), countless church chorales, organ concerts, as well as a number of entertainment works (“Water Music”, “Music for Royal Fireworks”).

One of the greatest composers of the Baroque era - Johann Sebastian Bach was born
March 21, 1685 in the city of Eisenach, Germany. During his life he composed more than 1000 works in various genres, except opera. But during his lifetime he did not achieve any significant success. Moving many times, Bach replaced one not very high position after another: in Weimar he was a court musician for the Weimar Duke Johann Ernst, then became caretaker of the organ in the Church of St. Boniface in Arnstadt, a few years later accepted the position of organist in the Church of St. Blasius in Mühlhausen, where he worked for only about a year, after which he returned to Weimar, where he took the place of court organist and concert organizer. He stayed in this position for nine years. In 1717, Leopold, Duke of Anhalt-Köthen, hired Bach as bandmaster, and Bach began to live and work in Köthen. In 1723 Bach moved to Leipzig, where he remained until his death in 1750.

J. S. Bach was well known in Germany during his lifetime as a composer, performer, teacher and father of the younger Bachs, primarily Carl Philipp Emmanuel. But in last years During Bach's life and death, his fame as a composer began to wane: his style was considered old-fashioned compared to the burgeoning classicism.

In 1802, Johann Nikolai Forkel published the first most complete biography of Johann Sebastian Bach. In 1829, 79 years after the death of J. S. Bach, Felix Mendelssohn performed Bach's St. Matthew Passion in Berlin. The success of this concert revived interest in the work of J. S. Bach and became the reason for the emergence of enormous interest in Bach's music in Germany, and then throughout Europe.

Now J. S. Bach is one of the most popular composers of all time: for example, in the vote “ Best Composer Millennium", held on Cultureciosque.com, Bach took first place.

The art of the 17th and 18th centuries formed two amazing styles - classicism and baroque. These two largest pan-European styles existed side by side for two centuries. Despite obvious differences, they interacted closely with each other. During their development, classicism and baroque found themselves not only in world and Russian architecture, but also in sculpture, literature, interior design and art. We will consider a comparison of classicism and baroque, two styles, bright, shocking and unique.

History of classicism

Classicism translated from Latin means “exemplary”. A memorable trend in European culture arose in the 17th century. This was the era of the strengthening of the monarchy, everything had to be perfect and at the same time luxurious, which can be seen in the impeccable figures of the ancient world.

The founder of the classicism style was France, where the spirit of freedom and perfection of man, both spiritual and physical, flew. Strict, ideal silhouettes in architectural ensembles, antique subjects in paintings and sculptures, rich but restrained interior decoration. All these are features of classicism.

In Russia, this style took hold under Catherine II; her desire to Europeanize the country played a key role in the construction famous monuments architecture of that time.

Classicism is classic, harmony of man and nature, simple and laconic in its direction. The style, where certain rules must be followed, very quickly found itself in palace culture in Germany, Italy, England and Russia.

Baroque history

Baroque means “loose”, “prone to excess”. Italy became the founder of this pompous style. End of the 16th century. - the era of the Renaissance, the strengthening of Catholic power, bright, bold and majestic, it had to make an impression. All the distinctive elements of the Baroque were embodied in the Catholic cities of Italy.

However, European countries also adopted for themselves certain attributes and elements of the “loose” Italian style. England, France, Russia used new cultural trends in their architecture and interior in order to emphasize their brilliance and uniqueness.

The style, aimed at creating the illusion of wealth and luxury of the church, as well as the Italian nobility, was subsequently reflected in all countries of Europe, America and Russia. And he remained an immortal companion of the Catholic Church.

Comparison and classicism

The two styles have walked side by side for centuries. However, they have obvious differences in the history and purpose of creation, in embodiment in art.

Comparison of classicism and baroque

Classicism and Baroque clearly

Main features baroque and classicism luxury and discreet wealth. Both styles are reflected in expensive works art and striking architectural structures. Let's look at the most famous objects of two different styles from the same time period.

Classicism is, of course, Vosstaniya Square and the Pantheon in Paris. St. Isaac's and Kazan Cathedrals in St. Petersburg. Bolshoi Theater in Warsaw. The famous painting by Jacques-Louis David "Napoleon's Crossing of the Alps" completely reflects the style of classicism in painting. "Psyche Awakened by Cupid's Kiss" is the most famous statue in classicism. "Apollo and the Nymphs" is an incredibly beautiful example of the classical style.

While Baroque is known to us from the Smolny Cathedral in St. Petersburg, the Opera House in Odessa and, of course, the Catholic Church in the Vatican. Rubens and Caravaggio are the most recognizable Baroque painters. And the Italian reveals to us all the expressiveness of the Baroque in his stunning sculptures.

Classicism and Baroque in architecture

As we can see from the descriptions and comparisons of the two styles, the differences between Baroque and Classicism are obvious. In the latter, this is an appeal, first of all, to ancient architecture, in the Baroque - to the luxury of Catholic churches.

Classicism and Baroque in architecture, comparison using the example of two outstanding monuments

Basilica del Santa Croce, Italy - a typical example of Italian Baroque. Distinctive features are lush decor and many statues on the facade. Sculptures, balconies, columns, complex shape building. The center is crowned by a huge round window - already going beyond the standards of typical architecture. Caryatids and Atlases, bizarre forms - all these are distinctive features of the Baroque.

Classicism is the Bolshoi Theater in Moscow. Using his example, we can see the characteristic features in the architecture of this style. Simplicity and conciseness. Monumentality and severity. Clear forms, columns. Small windows of standard shape. Discreet modeling pattern on the facade with typical patterns of the ancient world. Clear geometric shape of the building. Pleasant, discreet, uniform color throughout the building.

Baroque and classicist architecture are very different in comparison. At first glance, you can distinguish them from each other: the pretentiousness of the Baroque is striking, of course, these are complex architectural works. Whereas buildings in the classicist style have such clear proportions and a strict appearance that they involuntarily make you think about their greatness and monumentality.

Classicism and Baroque in painting

Coming from the same era, classicism and baroque, however, have distinctive features in art.

Michelangelo is one of the most famous Italian artists who set a new style in painting - Baroque. These are mainly religious subjects, vivid images, emotional scenes from life ordinary people. Contrast of colors, light and darkness, many household items, realistic emotions. Followers of this style in art include Guido Reni.

Classicism is no less picturesque, but ancient Greece is taken as the basis. Raphael and Giulio Romano depict ideal physical forms divine characters. Cold mythical plots fascinate with their brevity, nothing superfluous, carefully thought-out composition and space around the characters.

We can highlight the main elements in comparing the art movements of classicism and baroque. Firstly, this is the real emotionality of the Baroque, the strength of the plot and the colorfulness of the images, and secondly, the restrained beauty ancient mythology, clear and concise in its presentation.

Comparison of classicism and baroque in the interior

In addition to outstanding works of art and incredible architectural monuments, Baroque and classicism are reflected in the interior of houses and rooms. Next - from comparison of classicism and baroque in interior decoration.

These two styles brought their main features into the interior. First of all, it's expensive. In both cases it is luxury and wealth. And then we can talk about color solutions. Baroque is always bright, always gold, marble, lacquered surfaces. Many additional items, complex furniture shapes and fancy patterns of canopies and chair upholstery. Of course, this is the beauty that you want to immerse yourself in, every subject that you want to study. Admiration and pomp, what kings love so much.

Classicism in this regard plays in contrast with Baroque. Restrained pastel colors that harmonize with each other. The calm, but no less majestic interior is designed to calm rather than excite. Mainly light colors, clear lines, correctness of objects. The functionality of the interior attributes is not without its charm.

Classicism and Baroque in Russia

These two styles came to Russia in the 18th century. Tsarist Russia was in close contact with European states and did not want to be left behind in the opportunity to demonstrate its greatness.

Baroque was embodied mainly by Rastrelli. It was he who was involved in the reconstruction and construction of the main buildings of St. Petersburg at that time. Naturally, the styles were Russified, adopting the basic principles of the two directions, and traditional Russian architecture was preserved. Smolny Monastery is perhaps the most bright representative Baroque in St. Petersburg, while the “highlight” of classicism is, naturally, the Kazan Cathedral. The origins of this style in Russia were the architects V. Bazhenov, M. Kazakov, I. Starov; churches and houses built according to their designs can be seen in Moscow.

Baroque and classicism play a big role in Russian architecture. Both in the historical manifestation - the founding of St. Petersburg, the new Moscow, and in the struggle for equality of Russian classic writers.

Now it is impossible to imagine our cities without the Hermitage, the Academy of Sciences and the Tauride Palace.

Classicism and Baroque in our time

In the modern world, architects often turn to Baroque and Classicism, comparing and mixing these styles. The times of kings and emperors have passed, but the love of luxury and grandeur remains. Now you can see modern castles in the Baroque style somewhere on Rublevka or the dacha of another oligarch in the classicist style in the village of Nirvana near St. Petersburg.

At the Trezzini Hotel you can immerse yourself in the luxury of kings, and at the Empire Restaurant you can taste the dishes of modern kings. But this is today’s luxury, although it is still not available to everyone.

The 17th century turned out to be surprisingly favorable for the development artistic culture. It became not only a century of science, but also a century of art. True, taking into account the fact that the blossoming of science had only just begun, while art had already reached its apogee. Nevertheless, the sky above him is still clear and cloudless. His prestige in society is unusually high. In terms of the number of great artists of the 17th century, it apparently surpasses all others, including the Renaissance. Moreover, if during the Renaissance Italy has no equal in the field of art, then in the 17th century. art is on the rise in all European countries, and France now looks preferable.

Like other areas of culture, art has experienced the effects of differentiation. Its isolation becomes more and more prominent and distinct. Even the connection with religion is noticeably weakened. As a result, religious and mythological subjects get rid of excessive pathos and are filled with deep vitality and naturalness.

Another consequence of differentiation is that among artists the universal personalities characteristic of the era disappear. was not only a brilliant artist, but also a great scientist, thinker, and inventor. Although to a lesser extent, the same can be said about L. Alberti, F. Brunelleschi. Piero della Francesche, F. Rabelais and others. Now such large-scale figures are becoming rare. At the same time, there is an increase in the subjective principle in art. It manifests itself in an increasing number of bright individuals, in greater creative freedom and courage, and in a broader view of things.

Within art there is also a process of differentiation, existing genres are changing and new ones are emerging. IN painting Landscape and portrait become completely independent genres, in which psychologism is enhanced. Still life and images of animals appear. The importance of original compositional solutions, color, picturesqueness, and flavor is increasing.

IN music opera is born. The creator of this genre is the Italian composer C. Monteverdi (1567-1643), wrote the opera "Orpheus", which was staged in 1607 and became a real masterpiece of operatic art. For the first time, music in it not only complements the poetry, but is the main character, expressing the meaning of everything that happens on stage. In addition to opera, cantatas and oratorios also appear in music.

The main styles in the art of the 17th century. Baroque and classicism appear. Some art historians believe that at the same time realism emerged as a special style in art, but this point of view is disputed, although the existence of a realistic tendency is recognized.

Baroque

Baroque appears at the end of the 16th century. in Italy. The word “baroque” itself means “strange”, “bizarre”. The Baroque style is characterized by dynamic images, tension, brightness, elegance, contrast, the desire for grandeur, pomp and pomp, a synthesis of arts, a combination of reality and illusion, increased emotionality and sensuality. Baroque was the style of the aristocratic elite of the outgoing feudal society, the style of Catholic culture.

A prominent representative of the Italian Baroque is the Roman architect, sculptor and painter L. Bernini (1598-1680). His work embodied all the most characteristic features of the style - both strong and weak. Many of his works were concentrated in the main monument of Catholic Rome - the Cathedral of St. Petra. Under its dome, built by the great Michelangelo, rises a grandiose monumental and decorative structure - a thirty-meter canopy, and in the altar there is an equally majestic marble pulpit of Peter, decorated with gold and figures depicting angels and cupids, church fathers and saints.

An even more magnificent creation of Bernini was the grandiose colonnade, consisting of 284 columns, placed in four rows and framing a huge square in front of the Cathedral of St. Petra. Bernini's most significant sculptural works are considered to be “Apollo and Daphne” and “The Ecstasy of St. Teresa."

The most famous figure of the European Baroque is the Flemish artist P. Rubens (1577-1640). He can rightfully be called a universal personality, not inferior in scale to the titans of the Renaissance. He was close to humanists and was fond of the classics of Antiquity - Plutarch. Seneca, Horace, knew six languages, including Latin. Rubens was not a scientist or inventor, but he understood the problems of astronomy and archeology, showed interest in clocks without a mechanism, in the idea of ​​perpetual motion, followed new developments in philosophy, understood a lot about politics and actively participated in it. Most of all he loved human life itself.

Rubens embodied his commitment to humanism in his work. He became a great poet of a life filled with happiness, pleasure and lyricism. He remains an unsurpassed singer of human - male and especially female flesh, the sensual beauty of the human body. Only Rubens could, with such courage and love, convey the beauty of the flesh itself, its gentle warmth, soft pliability. He managed to show that flesh can be beautiful without having a beautiful form.

One of the central themes of his work is woman, love and the child as a natural and beautiful fruit of love. This side of his work can be seen and felt in such films as “Venus and Adonis”. "Juno and Argus", "Perseus and Andromeda", "Bathsheba".

While in Italy, Rubens attended a good art school. However, his Flemish temperament did not take everything from the great Italians. It is known that Italian masters preferred balance, calm and harmony, which allowed them to create eternal beauty. Rubens breaks all this in favor of movement. The human figures he depicts often resemble a compressed spring, ready to instantly unfold. In this regard, he is closest to Michelangelo, whose sculptures are full internal tension and movement. His works are also filled with vigorous dynamism. These, in particular, are the paintings “The Battle of the Amazons”, “The Abduction of the Daughters of Leucippus”, “Lion Hunt”, “Boar Hunt”.

In Rubens's works, color and picturesqueness prevail over drawing. Here Titian serves as his example. Rubens does not like too clear contours. It seems to separate matter from form, making it free, alive and carnal. As for color, the artist prefers bright, clean and rich tones, filled with healthy vitality. He strives not so much for their harmony as for orchestration, to create a color symphony. Rubens is rightly called the great composer of color.

Classicism

Homeland classicism became France. If Baroque gives preference to feelings, then classicism rests on reason. The highest norm and ideal example for him is ancient art. Its main principles are clarity, orderliness, logical consistency, harmony and harmony.

According to classicism, the subject of art should be sublime and beautiful, heroic and noble. Art is supposed to express high moral ideals, glorify the beauty and spiritual wealth of man, glorify the triumph of conscious duty over the element of feelings. The judge of art is not only taste, but also reason.

Classicism shares the basic principles of rationalism and, above all, the idea of ​​a rational structure of the world. However, in understanding the relationship between man and nature, he differs from him, continuing the line of Renaissance humanism and believing that these relationships should be built on the principles of consent and harmony, and not domination and submission. This is especially true for art, one of the tasks of which is to glorify the harmony of man with beautiful nature.

The founder and main figure of classicism in painting is a French artist N. Poussin (1594-1665). In his work, he relies entirely on the rationalism of R. Descartes, believing that sensation is always partial and one-sided, and only reason can comprehend the subject comprehensively and in all its complexity. Therefore, reason must judge everything.

Poussin spent almost his entire life in Italy, but this did not stop him from becoming truly French artist, who created one of the eye trends in art that exists to this day. From Italian masters greatest influence he was influenced by Raphael. whose works are ideal examples of complete perfection, as well as Titian, from whom all subsequent artists take lessons in pure picturesqueness.

Although Poussin gives preference to reason, his art cannot be called dry, cold and rational. He himself notes that the purpose of art is pleasure, that all the efforts of the artist are aimed at delivering aesthetic pleasure to the viewer. His works already contain two main elements of art, when it becomes a completely independent and self-sufficient phenomenon.

One of them is associated with plasticity, created by purely artistic, pictorial means, a combination of lines and colors, which constitutes a source of special, aesthetic pleasure. The second is associated with expression, expressiveness, with the help of which the artist influences the viewer and evokes in him the state of mind that he himself experienced.

The presence of these two principles allows Poussin to combine intellect and feeling. The primacy of reason is combined with his love of the flesh and sensuality. This is evidenced by his paintings “Venus and Adonis”, “Sleeping Venus”, “Bacchanalia” and others, where we see a person perfect in body and spirit.

In the initial period of Poussin’s creativity, canvases on historical and religious-mythological themes predominated. Such works as “The Rape of the Sabine Women”, “The Capture of

Jerusalem", "Arcadian Shepherds". Then the theme of harmony between man and nature comes to the fore. It is represented in the paintings “The Triumph of Flora”, “Landscape with Polyphemus”, “Landscape with Orpheus and Eurydice”, etc. Nature is not just a place for a person to stay. A deep sensory agreement is established between them, a certain community of souls; they form a single whole. Poussin created real symphonies of man and nature.

In the last years of his life, the artist devoted all his attention to praising nature. He creates the poetry series "Seasons".

Classicism in architecture found its ideal embodiment in Palace of Versailles, built by the will of the French King Louis XIV. This grandiose ensemble includes three majestic palaces and a huge park with pools, fountains and sculptures. The ensemble is distinguished by its strict layout, geometric park alleys, majestic sculptures, trimmed trees and bushes.

Realism

Realistic trend in the art of the 17th century. represents first of all Dutch artistRembrandt(1606-1669). The origins of this trend lie in creativity Italian painter Caravaggio (1573-1610), who rendered big influence on many artists.

Rembrandt's art in some ways occupies a middle position between Baroque and Classicism. In his works one can find features of these two styles, but without the extremes inherent in each of them. In particular, his famous "Danae" looks very sensual and carnal, but not to the same extent as Rubens would have performed it. It's the same with classicism. Some of its features are present in Rembrandt's works, but there is no pure, idealized beauty in them, there is nothing majestic or heroic. no pathos, etc. In them everything seems to be closer to the ground, everything is much simpler, more natural, more truthful, more lifelike.

However, the main originality of Rembrandt’s art lies elsewhere. It consists in the fact that thanks to him European painting a new direction has emerged - psychologism. Rembrandt was the first to seriously respond to the famous call of Socrates: “know yourself.” He turned his gaze inward, and a huge and unknown inner world, commensurate with the infinite Universe, was revealed to him. The subject of his art is the inexhaustible wealth of human spiritual life.

Rembrandt seems to be peering and listening to the endless shimmers psychological states, inexhaustible manifestations of individual human character. Hence the abundance of not only portraits, but also self-portraits in which he depicts himself in different periods life - in youth and old age, in different states - full vitality and after illness. In his works, portraiture not only becomes an independent genre, but also reaches unprecedented heights. All his work can be called art portrait.

This turn is largely explained by the fact that Rembrandt - unlike the Catholics Rubens and Poussin - was a Protestant. Before the advent of Protestantism, man did not consciously seek to separate himself from others. On the contrary, he did not think of himself outside the collective community. In Antiquity, such a community was supported by political and moral norms. In the Middle Ages, Christianity strengthened its previous foundations with a community of faith.

Protestantism violated this tradition, placing the main responsibility for a person’s fate on himself. Now the matter of salvation became, first of all, a personal matter for each individual. A profound shift occurred in the consciousness of Western man, and Rembrandt was the first to deeply feel the changes taking place and expressed them in his art.

About close attention to your secrets inner life, many works from the early period of Rembrandt’s work, and above all his self-portraits, speak about the search for one’s own personal truth. This is also evidenced by his paintings such as “Apostle Paul in Prison”, “Christ in Emmaus”, etc., where psychological experiences and reflections on the meaning of life and existence come to the fore. In the mature period and especially after the famous "Night Watch" these trends are becoming even stronger. They appear especially vividly in the paintings “Portrait of an Old Man in Red” and “Portrait of an Old Lady.” The painting “The Syndics” becomes the pinnacle of the art of group portraiture.

In the last period of his work, Rembrandt plunged more and more into the depths of human consciousness. He invades a completely new problem for European art - the problem of human loneliness. An example of this is his paintings “The Philosopher” and “The Return of the Prodigal Son”.