Russian culture of the 14th-16th centuries briefly. Russian culture of the 14th – early 16th centuries. Oral folk art of Rus'

RUSSIAN CULTURE IN THE 14th-16th CENTURIES
INFLUENCE OF THE TATAR-MONGOL ISIS ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF RUSSIAN CULTURE

As a result of the Mongol-Tatar invasion, severe damage was caused to material and cultural values. A sharp increase in the disunity of Russian lands from the mid-13th century made itself felt, which negatively affected the development of Russian culture. Immediately after the establishment of Horde rule in Rus', the construction of stone buildings temporarily ceased.

The art of a number of artistic crafts was lost.

During the period of feudal fragmentation, local centers of chronicle writing, as well as literary art schools, were formed. During the Mongol-Tatar yoke, some of these traditions were preserved, which created the basis for a future cultural upsurge by the end of the 14th century. In addition, the struggle for state integrity and independence brought together the cultures of different lands, as well as the culture of the elite and the people. Despite the fact that many cultural works perished, many appeared.

Having joined the system of world trade relations through the Golden Horde, Rus' adopted a number of cultural achievements of the countries of the East, the technology of manufacturing various objects, architectural and general cultural achievements.

On the other hand, the Mongol-Tatar invasion influenced the rise of Moscow as the center of the unification of Rus'. And gradually the all-Russian culture began to form on the basis of the culture of Vladimir Rus.

CHRONICLES

Starting from the second half of the 13th century, chronicle writing was gradually restored in the Russian lands. Its main centers remained the Galicia-Volyn principality, Novgorod, Rostov the Great, Ryazan, and from about 1250 Vladimir. New centers are also appearing: Moscow and Tver.

Since the second half of the 14th century, the compilation of chronicles and manuscript books has experienced a significant rise. The leading place is gradually occupied by the Moscow chronicle tradition with its ideas of unifying lands around Moscow. The Moscow chronicle tradition has come to us as part of the Trinity Chronicle from the beginning of the 15th century and, unlike local chronicles, is the first code of an all-Russian character since the times of Ancient Rus'; the right of the princes of Moscow to be the head of Rus' is substantiated here.

• In the middle of the 15th century, a brief world history appeared - the chronograph.

ORAL FOLK ART OF Rus'

At the same time, the most important genre of literature in the 13th century, which received dynamic development, became oral folk art: epics, songs, tales, military stories. They reflected the ideas of Russian people about their past and the world around them.

First cycle of epics is a revision and reworking of the old cycle of epics about the Kyiv state.

Second cycle of epics- Novgorod. It glorifies the wealth, power, love of freedom of the free city, as well as the courage of the townspeople in defending the city from enemies.

• The main characters are Sadko and Vasily Buslaevich.

Other genres appear in the 14th century and are devoted to understanding the Mongol conquest. Stories-legends: about the battle on the Kalka River, about the devastation of Ryazan, about the invasion of Batu, as well as about the defender of Smolensk - the young Smolyanin Mercury, who saved the city at the behest of the Mother of God from the Mongol armies. Some of the works of this cycle were included in chronicles.

LITERATURE OF Rus'

In the tradition of lament it is written “The Word about the Destruction of the Russian Land”(only the first part has survived). The ideas of national liberation and patriotism are also reflected in works dedicated to the northwestern borders of the Russian land: "The Tale of the Life of Alexander Nevsky". A whole series of hagiographies are dedicated to princes who died in the horde. This Life of Mikhail Chernigovsky. The princes are presented in these works as defenders of the Orthodox faith and Rus'.

• From here images, literary style, individual phrases, and expressions were borrowed. It does not report on a campaign or battle, but expresses feelings about what happened. Written following the results of the Battle of Kulikovo.

This victory is considered here as retribution for the defeat on the Kalka River. The work expresses pride in victory and glorifies Moscow as the state center of Rus'. Zadonshchina has been preserved in the original. Characterized by good literary language.

In the genre of secular literature written Sailing across three seas Afanasy Nikitina. This is one of the few secular works preserved in Rus'. It retells impressions from travel to India and many eastern countries. This is a travel diary.

THE BEGINNING OF BOOK PRINTING IN Rus'

The end of the 15th century is associated with the completion of the formation of the Great Russian people.

• A language has emerged that differs from Church Slavonic. The Moscow dialect became dominant.

With the formation of a centralized state, the need for literate, educated people increased.

• In 1563, the state printing house was headed by Ivan Fedorov. His assistant was Fyodor Mstislavovich. .

In 1574, the first Russian alphabet was published in Lvov.

GENERAL POLITICAL THOUGHT OF Rus' IN THE 16TH CENTURY.

The reforms of the Elected Rada under Ivan the Terrible were aimed at strengthening the centralization of the state. The general political thought of Rus' reflected several trends on issues of the relationship between power and individual segments of the population called upon to support it. Either the royal power had to fight the boyars, or the boyars had to be its main support.

The Great Menaion of the Metropolitan of All Rus' Macarius (1481/82-31.XII. 1563) is a book collection of 12 handwritten books, constituting an annual “reading circle” for almost every day, each of the 12 Menaion contains material for one of the months (starting from September). According to the plan of the initiator, organizer of correspondence and editor of this book collection, Macarius, 12 folios of enormous volume and size were to contain “all the holy books of the Chetya”, revered and read in Rus', thanks to which the Great Menaion of the Chetya became a kind of encyclopedia of Russian book literature of the 16th century.

Domostroy- a monument of Russian literature of the 16th century, which is a collection of rules, advice and instructions on all areas of human and family life, including social, family, economic and religious issues. It is best known in the mid-16th century version attributed to Archpriest Sylvester.

• Although Domostroy was a collection of advice on housekeeping, it was written in artistic language and became a literary monument of the era.

PAINTING OF Rus'

Despite some decline in the development of the country, Russian painting reached its peak by the 14th - 15th centuries. In modern literature, this period is assessed as the Russian revival. At this time, a series of wonderful painters were working in Rus'.

• At the end of the 14th and beginning of the 15th century, a person who came from Byzantium worked in Novgorod, Moscow, Serpukhov and Nizhny Novgorod painter Feofan the Greek.

He perfectly combined the Byzantine tradition and the already formed Russian one. Sometimes he worked in violation of the canons. His images are psychological, his icons convey spiritual tension. He created the painting of the Church of the Savior on Ilyen Street in Novgorod, together with Semyon Cherny - the painting of the Moscow Church of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary (1395) and the Archangel Cathedral (1399).

• The great Russian artist who worked during this period is Andrey Rublev.

He is a master of laconic but very expressive composition. An amazing picturesque coloring is visible in his works. And in his icons and frescoes one can feel the ideal of moral perfection. At the same time, he was able to convey the subtle emotional experiences of the characters. He participated in the painting of the old Annunciation Cathedral in the Kremlin (1405) together with Theophan the Greek and the prokhor from Gorodets, and painted the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir (1408). Trinity Cathedral in the Trinity-Sergius Monastery and the Spassky Cathedral of the Andronikov Monastery (1420).

The image reflects the biblical story, when the forefather Abraham received at home three travelers sent by God, who brought him news of the impending birth of his son. The first images of three angels at a table appeared in Byzantium in the 14th century, and were called Philoxenia (Greek - “hospitality”) of Abraham.

One of the first who breathed a new Eucharistic meaning into this icon was the Russian icon painter, Saint Andrei Rublev. He depicted the Three Angels as three hypostases of God. The middle Angel symbolizes the Son of God - Jesus Christ, the left - God the Father, the right Angel - God - the Holy Spirit (the basis for this interpretation of the icon is the clothing and arrangement of the Angels), however, the identical appearance of the Faces shows that the Holy Trinity is a single and indivisible Whole. Before the Angels stands a cup - a symbol of Christ’s sacrifice for our sins.

At the end of the 15th century, a huge contribution to the development of Russian painting was made by the outstanding icon painter Dionysius. He was an excellent calorist and a very complex master. Together with his sons Theodosius and Vladimir as well as other students, he created frescoes by Uspensky Kremlin Cathedral.

Among his creations was the famous icon of the Savior in strength.

At the same time, the Novgorod Icon Painting School is also functioning. It is distinguished by its bright colors and dynamic composition.

ARCHITECTURE OF Rus'

In the 14th-16th centuries, due to the centralization of the state, Moscow was decorated (under Ivan Kalita, stone construction developed).

• Under Dmitry Donskoy, the white stone Kremlin was built for the first time.

During the yoke, a series of old Russian churches are being restored. Thanks to additions and reconstructions, there is a tendency towards the crystallization of the Russian national architectural style based on the synthesis of the traditions of the Kyiv and Vladimir-Suzdal lands, which in the future became a model for subsequent construction in the late 15th and early 16th centuries.

On the advice of Sophia Paleolog (grandmother of Ivan IV the Terrible), masters from Italy were invited. The purpose of this is to display the power and glory of the Russian state. The Italian Aristotle Fioravanti traveled to Vladimir and examined the Assumption and Demetrius Cathedrals. He successfully managed to combine the traditions of Russian and Italian architecture. In 1479, he successfully completed the construction of the main temple of the Russian state - the Assumption Cathedral of the Kremlin. Following this, a faceted chamber was built to receive foreign embassies.

• The appeal to national origins was especially clearly expressed in the stone architecture of the traditional Russian tent style, so characteristic of the wooden architecture of Rus'.

Masterpieces of the tent style were the Church of the Ascension in the village of Kolomenskoye (1532) and the Intercession Cathedral on Kremlin Square in Moscow. That is, its own architectural style appears.

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Magnitogorsk State University

Test

on Russian history

on the topic: Russian culture of the 14th - early 16th centuries

Completed by: Yakovleva O.V.

1st year student of OOO

historical faculty

Checked by: Surganov O.V.

Magnitogorsk

2000

Introduction

1. Russian culture of the XIV - mid-XV centuries

1.1 Book business

1.2 Literature. Chronicle

1.3 Architecture

1.4 Painting

1.5 Accumulation of scientific knowledge

2. Russian culture of the 15th - early 16th centuries

2.1 Book business

2.2 Chronicles. Literature

2.3 Architecture

2.4 Painting

Conclusion

List of sources and literature used

Introduction

Russian culture painting chronicle

In the middle of the 13th century, Rus' was subjected to a Mongol-Tatar invasion, which had catastrophic consequences for its economy and culture. It was accompanied by the extermination and captivity of a significant part of the population, the destruction of material assets, cities and villages. The Golden Horde yoke, established for two and a half centuries, created extremely unfavorable conditions for the restoration and further development of the economy and culture.

As a result of the political events of the 13th - 14th centuries, various parts of the ancient Russian people found themselves divided and separated from each other. Entry into different state entities complicated the development of economic and cultural ties between individual regions of the formerly united Rus' and deepened the differences in language and culture that existed before. This led to the formation of three fraternal nationalities on the basis of the Old Russian nationality - Russian (Great Russian), Ukrainian and Belarusian. The formation of the Russian (Great Russian) nationality, which began in the 14th century and ended in the 16th century, was facilitated by the emergence of a common language (while maintaining dialect differences) and culture, and the formation of a common state territory.

Two main, closely interconnected circumstances of the historical life of the people at this time determined the content of culture and the direction of its development: the struggle against the Golden Horde yoke and the struggle to eliminate feudal fragmentation and create a unified state.

The Mongol-Tatar invasion led to deepening feudal fragmentation. In the culture of disunited feudal principalities, along with separatist tendencies, unifying tendencies also became more and more clearly evident.

The idea of ​​the unity of the Russian land and the fight against foreign yoke became one of the leading ones in culture and runs like a red thread through works of oral folk art, writing, painting, and architecture.

The culture of this time is also characterized by the idea of ​​​​the inextricable connection of Rus' XIV - XV centuries with Kievan Rus and Vladimir-Suzdal Rus. This tendency was clearly manifested in oral folk art, chronicles, literature, political thought, and architecture.

In this essay we examined the development of Russian culture in the 14th century. - beginning of the 16th centuries. This period can be divided into two stages: XIV - mid-15th century and end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th century. Within the first period, in turn, two stages of the historical and cultural process can be distinguished. The first of them (around the middle of the 14th century) was marked by a noticeable decline in various spheres of culture, although already from the end of the 13th century. there were signs of an incipient revival. From the second half of the 14th century. - the second stage - the rise of Russian culture begins, due to the success of economic development and the first major victory over the conquerors in the Battle of Kulikovo, which was an important milestone on the path to the liberation of the country from foreign yoke. The Kulikovo victory caused a rise in national self-awareness, which was reflected in all areas of culture. While maintaining significant local cultural characteristics, the idea of ​​the unity of the Russian land becomes leading.

The turn of the 15th - 16th centuries was a turning point in the historical development of Russian lands. Three interconnected phenomena are characteristic of this time: the formation of a unified Russian state, the liberation of the country from the Mongol-Tatar yoke and the completion of the formation of the Russian (Great Russian) nationality. All of them had a direct impact on the spiritual life of Russia, on the development of its culture, and predetermined the nature and direction of the historical and cultural process.

Overcoming feudal fragmentation and the creation of a unified state power created favorable conditions for the economic and cultural development of the country and served as a powerful stimulus for the rise of national self-awareness. The beneficial influence of these factors affected the development of all Russian culture at the end of the 15th - first half of the 16th century, especially clearly manifested in socio-political thought and architecture.

And in spiritual culture, the idea of ​​unity and the struggle for independence against foreign invaders continued to remain one of the leading ones.

During the period of the Mongol-Tatar yoke, Rus' was isolated from the countries of Central and Western Europe, which had advanced forward in their development. For the Russian state, establishing ties with Western European culture was an important condition for overcoming backwardness and strengthening its position among the European powers. At the end of the 15th and beginning of the 16th centuries, relations with Italy and other countries successfully developed, which had a beneficial effect on Russian culture; outstanding architects and other craftsmen came to work in Russia.

The most important factor in the development of culture is the influence of the church on the spiritual life of society and the strength of its position in the state. Throughout the period under review, these relationships were far from uniform.

The development of progressive trends in culture, elements of a rationalistic worldview turned out to be associated with circles opposed to the autocracy.

1. Russian culture of the XIV - mid-XV centuries

1. 1 Book business

Although the disastrous consequences of foreign invasions had a negative impact on the preservation of book treasures and on the level of literacy, the traditions of writing and book learning, established in the 11th-12th centuries, were preserved and were further developed.

The rise of culture from the second half of the 14th century was accompanied by the development book business. The largest centers of book learning were monasteries, which had book-writing workshops and libraries containing hundreds of volumes. The most significant were the book collections of the Trinity-Sergius, Kirillo-Belozersky and Solovetsky monasteries that have survived to this day. From the end of the 15th century. An inventory of the library of the Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery has reached us (4, p. 67).

But the church did not have a monopoly on the creation and distribution of books. As evidenced by the scribes' notes on the books, a significant part of them did not belong to the clergy. Book-writing workshops also existed in cities and at princely courts. Books were produced, as a rule, to order, sometimes for sale.

The development of writing and bookmaking was accompanied changes in writing technique. In the XIV century. replaced expensive parchment paper, which was delivered from other countries, mainly from Italy and France. The writing graphics have changed; instead of a strict “statutory” letter, the so-called half-charter appeared, and from the 15th century. and “cursive writing,” which speeded up the process of making a book. All this made the book more accessible and helped meet the growing demand (9, p..47).

Book production was dominated by liturgical books, the necessary set of which was in every religious institution - in a church, a monastery. The nature of the reader's interests was reflected "father's" books, i.e. books intended for individual reading. There were many such books in monastery libraries. The most common type of "chet's" book in the 15th century. collections of mixed composition have become, which researchers call “libraries in miniature.”

The repertoire of "four" collections is quite extensive. Along with translated patriotic and hagiographic works, they contained original Russian works; Next to religious and edifying literature, there were works of a secular nature - excerpts from chronicles, historical stories, journalism. It is noteworthy that these collections contain articles of a natural science nature. Thus, in one of the collections of the library of the Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery of the early 15th century. included articles “On the latitude and longitude of the earth”, “On stages and fields”, “On the distance between heaven and earth”, “Lunar current”, “On earthly structure”, etc. The author of these articles decisively broke with the fantastic ideas of church literature about structure of the Universe. The earth was recognized as a sphere, although it was still placed at the center of the universe (4, P.32). Other articles give a completely realistic explanation of natural phenomena (for example, thunder and lightning, which, according to the author, occur from the collision of clouds). There are also articles on medicine, biology, and extracts from the works of a Roman scientist and doctor of the 2nd century. Galena.

Russian books of the 14th and 15th centuries played an outstanding role in the revival of literary monuments of the past and in the dissemination of contemporary works of deep ideological and political resonance.

1. 2 Literature. Chronicle

Russian literature of the 14th - 15th centuries inherited from ancient Russian literature its acute journalisticism and put forward the most important problems of the political life of Rus'. It was especially closely connected with socio-political life chronicle. Being historical works, the chronicles were at the same time political documents that played a large role in the ideological and political struggle (1, p. 12).

In the first decades after the Mongol-Tatar invasion, chronicle writing experienced a decline. But it, having been interrupted for a while in some, was resumed in new political centers. Chronicle writing continued to be distinguished by local features, great attention to local events, and tendentious coverage of events from the perspective of one or another feudal center. But the theme of the unity of the Russian land and its struggle against foreign conquerors ran through all the chronicles.

At first, Moscow chronicles also had a local character. , appeared in the first half of the 14th century. However, with the increasing political role of Moscow, it gradually acquired a national character. As it developed, Moscow chronicles became the focus of advanced political ideas. It not only reflected and ideologically consolidated Moscow’s successes in unifying Russian lands, but also actively participated in this work, vigorously promoting unifying ideas.

The growth of national self-awareness was evidenced by the revival all-Russian chronicle at the end of the XIV - beginning of the XV centuries. The first all-Russian code, which broke with narrow local interests and took the position of the unity of Rus', was compiled in Moscow at the beginning of the 15th century (the so-called Trinity Chronicle, died during the Moscow fire of 1812). Moscow chroniclers did a lot of work to unite and process disparate regional vaults. Around 1418, with the participation of Metropolitan Photius, a compilation was undertaken new chronicle collection (Vladimir polychron), the main idea of ​​which was the union of the Moscow grand-ducal power with the urban population of the feudal centers for the purpose of the political unification of Rus'. These vaults formed the basis for subsequent chronicle vaults. One of the most significant works of Russian chronicle writing was Moscow arch 1479 (1, p.49).

All Moscow chronicles are permeated by the idea of ​​the need for state unity and strong grand-ducal power. They clearly demonstrate the historical and political concept that emerged at the beginning of the 15th century, according to which the history of Rus' in the 14th and 15th centuries is a direct continuation of the history of Ancient Rus'. The chronicles propagated the idea, which later became official, that Moscow inherited the political traditions of Kyiv and Vladimir and was their successor. This was emphasized by the fact that the vaults began with the “Tale of Bygone Years.”

Unifying ideas that corresponded to the vital interests of various strata of feudal society were developed in a number of other centers. Even in Novgorod, which was distinguished by particularly strong separatist tendencies, in the 30s of the 15th century an all-Russian city in nature was created. Novgorod-Sofia vault, which included the arch of Photius. It also took on an all-Russian character Tver chronicle, in which the strong power of the Grand Duke was promoted and the facts of the liberation struggle against the Golden Horde were noted. But it clearly exaggerated the role of Tver and the Tver princes in the unification of Rus' (1, p. 50).

The central theme of literature was the struggle of the Russian people against foreign invaders. Therefore, one of the most common genres became military story. The works of this genre were based on specific historical facts and events, and the characters were real historical figures.

An outstanding monument of narrative literature of the military genre is “The Tale of the Ruin of Ryazan by Batu.” The main part of its content is the story of the capture and destruction of Ryazan by the Tatars and the fate of the princely family. The story condemns feudal strife as the main reason for the defeat of the Russians and at the same time, from the point of view of religious morality, what is happening is assessed as punishment for sins. This testifies to the desire of church ideologists to use the very fact of the disaster to promote Christian ideas and strengthen the influence of the church.

The struggle against the Swedish and German feudal lords was reflected in the secular druzhina story about Alexander Nevsky, which contained a detailed description of the Battle of the Neva and the Battle of the Ice. But this story has not reached us. It was reworked into the life of Alexander Nevsky and received a religious overtones. The story about the Pskov prince Dovmont, dedicated to the struggle of the Pskov people against German and Lithuanian aggression, underwent a similar transformation (1, p. 52).

Monument Tver literature from the beginning of the 14th century is “The Tale of the Murder of Prince Mikhail Yaroslavich in the Horde.” This is a topical political work that had an anti-Moscow orientation. Based on an oral folk poetic work, “The Tale of Shevkal” was written, dedicated to the uprising in Tver in 1327.

The victory over the Mongol-Tatars on the Kulikovo Field in 1380 caused a rise in national self-awareness and instilled in the Russian people confidence in their abilities. Under its influence arose Kulikovo cycle works that are united by one main idea - about the unity of the Russian land as the basis for victory over the enemy. The four main monuments included in this cycle are different in character, style, and content. They all talk about the Battle of Kulikovo as the greatest historical victory of Rus' over the Tatars (4, pp. 24-25).

The most profound and significant work of this cycle is "Zadonshchina" - poem written by Sophony Ryazan shortly after the Battle of Kulikovo. The author did not strive to give a consistent and thorough depiction of events. Its goal is to glorify the great victory over the hated enemy, to glorify its organizers and participants (4, p.345). The poem emphasizes the role of Moscow in organizing the victory, and Prince Dmitry Ivanovich is presented as the true organizer of the Russian forces.

IN Chronicle story about For the first time, the Battle of Kulikovo is given a coherent account of the events of 1380. It emphasizes the unity and cohesion of the Russian forces around the Grand Duke, and the campaign against the Tatars is regarded as an all-Russian affair. However, in the story there is a noticeable deviation from real historical facts, which are interpreted from the point of view of religious morality: the final reason for the defeat of the Tatars is “divine will”; in the spirit of religious concepts, the behavior of the Ryazan prince Oleg is condemned; Dmitry Donskoy is depicted as a Christian ascetic, endowed with piety, love of peace and love of Christ.

"The Tale of the Massacre of Mamayev" - the most voluminous and most popular work of the Kulikovo cycle. It is ideologically and artistically contradictory; two different approaches to understanding events coexist in it. On the one side. The Kulikovo victory is regarded as a reward for the Christian virtues characteristic of the Russians; on the other hand, a real view of things: the author of “The Tale” is well versed in the political situation of that time, highly appreciates the heroism and patriotism of the Russian people, the foresight of the Grand Duke, and understands the importance of unity between the princes. In "The Legend" the idea of ​​a close union of the church and princely power is justified (description of the relationship between Dmitry Donskoy and Sergius of Radonezh) (4, p. 189).

Only in connection with the biography of Dmitry Donskoy is the Battle of Kulikovo in "A Sermon on the Life and Death of Grand Duke Dmitry Ivanovich, Tsar of Russia". This is a solemn panegyric to the deceased prince, in which his deeds are praised and their significance for the present and future of Rus' is determined. The image of Dmitry Ivanovich combines the features of an ideal hagiographic hero and an ideal statesman, emphasizing the Christian virtues of the prince. This reflects the desire of the clergy for a union with grand-ducal power.

The events of 1382, when Tokhtamysh attacked Moscow, formed the basis of the story “About the capture of Moscow from Tsar Tokhtamysh and the capture of the Russian land.” The story is characterized by such a feature as democracy, therefore it occupies a special place in the literature of the 14th - 15th centuries, covering events from the perspective of the broad masses, in this case the population of Moscow. There is no individual hero in it. Ordinary townspeople who took the defense of Moscow into their own hands after the princes and boyars fled from it are the true hero of the story (9, pp. 53-54).

At the time under review, there was great development hagiographic literature, a number of whose works are permeated with current journalistic ideas. Church preaching in them was combined with the development of thoughts about the leading role of Moscow and the close union of princely power and the church (with primary importance given to church power) as the main condition for the strengthening of Rus'. The hagiographic literature also reflected specifically ecclesiastical interests, which did not always coincide with the interests of the grand ducal authorities. The Life of Metropolitan Peter, written by Metropolitan Cyprian, was of a journalistic nature, who saw the commonality of the fate of Metropolitan Peter, not recognized at one time by the prince of Tver, with his own and with his complex relationship with the Moscow prince Dmitry Ivanovich.

Has become widespread in hagiographic literature rhetorical-panegyric style (or expressive-emotional style). The text included lengthy and florid speeches-monologues, the author's rhetorical digressions, and reasoning of a moral and theological nature. Much attention was paid to describing the hero’s feelings, his state of mind, and psychological motivations for the actions of the characters appeared. The expressive-emotional style reached the pinnacle of its development in the works of Epiphanius the Wise and Pachomius Logothetes.

1.3 Architecture

Stone construction in Russia ceased for half a century as a result of the Mongol-Tatar invasion. It resumed only at the end of the 13th century. Since that time, the traditions of regional traditions have come to life and received new development. architectural schools that developed in the previous period (2, P.87).

One of the largest centers for the development of art in the 14th - 15th centuries was Novgorod, which was experiencing economic and political growth at that time. The high level of urban life and the peculiarities of the socio-political system of the Novgorod feudal republic determined the characteristic features Novgorod art, the presence of a strong democratic current in it. As before, Novgorod buildings were erected at the expense of individual boyars, merchant associations and groups of "street residents", and they reflected the tastes of the customers.

Based on the architectural traditions of pre-Mongol times, Novgorod architects searched for new artistic, construction and technical solutions. The direction of these searches was determined already in the very first building, erected after a significant break - in the Church of St. Nicholas on Lipne (1292). The architects introduced a lot of new things into the traditional type of four-pillar, single-domed, cubic-shaped temple. They replaced the roof covering with a three-lobed one, abandoned the division of the facades with blades, reduced the number of apses from three to one, lowering it to half the height of the temple. This gave the building massiveness and solidity. Novgorod builders switched to masonry from roughly hewn limestone slabs using boulders and partly brick, which further enhanced the impression of strength and power. Here the characteristic feature of Novgorod art clearly manifested itself (2, p. 45).

New quests and old traditions were reflected in the Church of the Savior on Kovalevo (1345) and the Church of the Assumption on Volotovo Field (1352). This is an intermediate link in the process of developing the style in Novgorod architecture, which is represented by buildings of the second half of the 14th century. Classic examples of this style are the Church of Fyodor Stratelates (1360-1361) and the Church of the Savior on Ilyin Street (1374). A characteristic feature of this style is the elegant external decoration of temples. Their facades are decorated with decorative niches, triangular depressions, and sculptural inset crosses. Many niches were filled with fresco paintings.

Subsequently, the new architectural style remained almost unchanged. Moreover, in the 15th century, a desire to reproduce the architectural forms of the 12th century appeared. This revival of cultural traditions revealed the separatism of the Novgorod aristocracy, its desire to preserve the “antiquity and duty” of the independent Novgorod boyar republic (2, pp. 46-47).

Large civil construction was also carried out in Novgorod. In the Kremlin in 1433, German and Novgorod craftsmen built a faceted chamber intended for ceremonial receptions and meetings of the Council of Gentlemen. In the lord's courtyard, the Clock Bell (1443) was erected - an octagonal tower on a rectangular base. Some Novgorod boyars built themselves stone chambers with box vaults. In 1302, a stone building was founded in Novgorod, which was subsequently rebuilt several times. The fortifications of Staraya Ladoga, Porkhov, Koporye, Yama, and Oreshka were erected (2, p. 47).

It was unique architecture of Pskov, separated from Novgorod in the middle of the 14th century and became the center of an independent feudal republic. The Pskovites achieved great success in fortress construction. Stone walls were erected in 1330 Izborsk - one of the largest military structures of Ancient Rus'. In Pskov itself, a large stone Kremlin was built, the total length of the walls of which was about nine kilometers. The entire architecture of Pskov had a fortress appearance, the buildings were stern and laconic, almost devoid of decorative decoration.

Characteristic of Pskov architecture are stone belfries, consisting of several spans. Pskov craftsmen developed a special system of covering the building with mutually intersecting arches, which made it possible to later free the temple from the pillars. This technique played a significant role in the creation of the type of small pillarless “posad” church. Pskov architects won all-Russian fame with their skill. They played a big role in Moscow construction in the 15th - 16th centuries.

The first city of North-Eastern Rus' in which the stone construction, was Tver. Here, in 1285 -1290, the Cathedral of the Transfiguration of the Savior was built - a six-pillar cross-domed temple, decorated with white stone reliefs. The Vladimir Assumption Cathedral served as a model for it. At the beginning of the 14th century, another stone church was built, but then there was a long break in construction, caused by the weakening of Tver as a result of its defeat after the uprising of 1327. Only from the end of the 14th century did a new rise begin. Of the Tver buildings of that time, the Church of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary in the village of Gorodnya on the Volga has reached us (2, p. 48).

Start stone construction in Moscow dates back to the second quarter of the 14th century. Under Ivan Kalita, four stone churches were built in the Moscow Kremlin: the Assumption Cathedral, the churches of Ivan the Climacus and the Savior on Bor, and the Archangel Cathedral. None of them have reached our time, but there is reason to believe that they were built in the spirit of the traditions of Vladimir-Suzdal architecture. Several stones that survived from the Church of the Savior on Bor indicate that it was decorated with carvings.

In 1367, it was built in Moscow stone Kremlin, the only one in all of North-Eastern Rus' at that time. This testified to the growing political power of Moscow. On the eve of the Battle of Kulikovo, the Assumption Cathedral was built in Kolomna, which was larger in size than all Moscow churches. The oldest surviving monuments of Moscow architecture are the Assumption Cathedral in Zvenigorod (about 1400), the Cathedral of Savvin Storozhevsky Monastery near Zvenigorod (1405) and the Trinity Cathedral of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery (1422) (3, p. 24).

The models for them were the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl and the Demetrius Cathedral in Vladimir, although the buildings of the early 15th century were more squat and austere, and their decoration was more modest. The emphasized interest in the architecture of Vladimir was determined by the political idea of ​​Vladimir’s inheritance, which permeated all Moscow politics and was reflected in other spheres of culture.

This does not mean at all that Moscow architects only copied existing models. They showed particular interest in the development and creation of a new, skyward composition of the entire temple building. This was achieved due to the stepped arrangement of the vaults and the placement of several rows of kokoshniks at the base of the drum. The desire to overcome “cubicity” and impart dynamism to the entire composition was especially clearly manifested in the Cathedral of the Andronikov Monastery (circa 1427). This trend became leading in Moscow architecture.

1.4 Painting

The second half of the 14th - early 15th centuries is called the "golden age" wall painting Ancient Rus'. Developing successfully Novgorod monumental painting, based on local traditions and using the achievements of Byzantine art. Made a great contribution to its development Feofan the Greek, who worked first in Novgorod and then in Moscow. He came from Byzantium to Rus' in the 70s of the 14th century as a mature painter and gave his skills to his new homeland. Feofan’s best work, which most fully reveals the originality and power of his work, is the fresco painting of the Church of the Savior on Ilyin Street. Feofan the Greek is characterized by a bold painting style, freedom in handling iconographic traditions, virtuosity of execution, interest in character and the inner world of a person (6, p.54). In his characters he embodied the spirituality of man, the strength of his inner emotionality, and the desire for the sublime. Feofan's stormy, temperamental painting is a vivid manifestation of the expressive-emotional style in Russian art of this time.

The frescoes of Theophan the Greek in the Church of the Savior on Ilyin are similar in style to the frescoes of the Church of Fyodor Stratelates. Some researchers consider them the work of Theophanes, others - the work of his students (6, p.54).

A remarkable monument of Novgorod painting was the complex of frescoes of the Volotov Church (destroyed during the Great Patriotic War), in which the freedom of artistic creativity and the desire to overcome the traditional canons of church painting were clearly manifested. These frescoes were distinguished by extreme dynamics in the construction of the composition and deep emotional richness.

The frescoes of the Church of the Savior on Kovalevo look different, which are characterized by features of asceticism. Researchers see in them the influence of the South Slavic artistic tradition and believe that they were painted by Serbian artists.

In the 15th century, monumental painting increasingly adopted the dogmatic features of official church ideology. But in Novgorod, icon painting still remained associated with democratic circles, as evidenced by the simplicity of the interpretation of the subjects, the wide distribution of popular icons of saints who assumed the functions of pagan deities - patrons of various economic activities. The narrow boundaries of religious themes expanded.

Reached high prosperity painting in Moscow at the end of the XIV - beginning of the XV century. Here at this time the Russian national school of painting was finally taking shape, the most prominent representative of which was the brilliant Russian artist Andrey Rublev. His predecessor in painting Moscow churches was Feofan the Greek, who moved to Moscow in the 90s. The Moscow paintings of Feofan have not survived.

Andrei Rublev was born around 1360. He was a monk of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, and then of Spaso-Andronikov. In 1405, together with Theophan the Greek and Prokhor from Gorodets, he painted the walls of the Annunciation Cathedral in the Moscow Kremlin. In 1408, Rublev, together with Daniil Cherny worked on the frescoes of the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir, and then they decorated the Trinity Cathedral of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery with frescoes and icons. At the end of his life, A. Rublev painted the Cathedral of the Andronikov Monastery. Andrei Rublev died around 1430 and was buried in the Andronikov Monastery (9, p. 58).

The earliest currently known works by Rublev are considered to be the frescoes of the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir, created by him together with Daniil Cherny. One of them is “Procession of the Righteous to Paradise.” These works revealed the characteristic features of Rublev’s style, which is characterized by lyrical tranquility. Rublev's characters are softer, more humane than in Feofan's paintings.

Rublev's most famous work is Trinity icon - written by him for the iconostasis of the Trinity Cathedral. It expresses with rare artistic force the humanistic idea of ​​harmony and philanthropy, and gives a generalized ideal of moral perfection and purity. The images of the Archangel Gabriel and the Apostle Paul from the same iconostasis of the Trinity Cathedral are remarkable in their depth of psychological characterization and mastery of execution. The national character of Rublev's work found particularly vivid expression in his "Spas" from Zvenigorod.

In the work of A. Rublev, wrote the researcher of ancient Russian art V.N. Lazarev, “the process of isolation of Russian painting from Byzantine, which began already in the 12th century and developed in continuous growth until the 15th century, receives its logical conclusion. Rublev finally abandons Byzantine severity and Byzantine asceticism. He extracts from the Byzantine heritage its ancient Hellenistic core... He translates the colors of Russian nature into the high language of art, giving them in such impeccably correct combinations that they are inherent, like the creation of a great musician, with absolute purity of sound" (9, C .59).

1. 5 Accumulation of scientific knowledge

Rus' was by no means completely illiterate. Knowledge of writing and counting was required in many branches of economic and other activities. Birch bark letters from Novgorod and other centers, various written monuments (chronicles, stories, etc.), inscriptions on handicraft products (coins, seals, bells, weapons, jewelry, artistic castings, etc.) indicate that literate people have never been transferred to Rus', and not only among monks, but also among artisans and merchants. They were also among the boyars and nobles. Wealthy people kept written records of their farms; Various kinds of account books, documents of spiritual monasteries - monasteries, and copies of documents from earlier times have been preserved from the 16th century (7, p. 67).

At the disposal of scientists, despite all the losses of the Batu era and the later Horde “armies,” there is still a lot of handwritten material for the XIV-XVI centuries. These are documents (spiritual letters, treaties of the great, including Moscow, and appanage princes, economic acts of the Russian metropolis, episcopal sees, monasteries), lives of saints, chronicles and much more. Manuals on grammar, arithmetic, and herbal treatment (alphabet books, herbalists, etc.) appear.

Practical observations and knowledge of construction technology (necessary for the construction of buildings), dynamics (calculation of the flight range of stones, balls from battering and other devices; from cannons that appeared at the end of the 14th century), applied physics (minting coins, casting guns, etc.) were accumulated. assembly and repair of clock mechanisms), applied chemistry (production of paints, inks). arithmetic and geometry (description of lands, trade affairs, etc.).

Descriptions of natural phenomena (eclipses, earthquakes, etc.) are quite frequent in chronicles. Translated works were popular - “Christian Topography” by Kozma Indikoplov (a 6th-century traveler), “Six Days” by John, Exarch of the Bulgarian, “Gromnik”, etc. Astronomical observations are given in Russian handwritten collections; medical - in the same chronicles (descriptions of diseases). And the 15th-century collection, released from the Kirillo-Belozersky monastery, included comments by Galen, a Roman scientist of the 2nd century AD, on the work of Hippocrates, the ancient Greek “father of medicine” (5th-4th centuries BC). The “Book of Soshnomu Letter” (mid-14th century) was of outstanding importance for its time - it described methods for calculating land areas and taxes on them (6, p. 78).

Russian travelers expanded their range of geographical knowledge. They left descriptions of their travels. These are the Novgorodian Stefan, who visited Constantinople (mid-14th century); Gregory Kalika (probably visited the same city in the 14th century; later, under the name of Vasily Kalika, became the Archbishop of Novgorod); deacon of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery Zosima (Constantinople, Palestine; 1420); Suzdal monk Simeon (Ferrara, Florence; 1439); famous Afanasy Nikitin, Tver merchant (India; 1466-1472). Russian people, penetrating north into Siberia, compiled descriptions, “drawings” of the lands they saw; ambassadors - article lists with information about foreign countries.

2. Russian culture of the 15th - early 16th centuries

2.1 Book business

During the period under review, it became more widespread handwritten book. The main centers for storing books continued to be monasteries, which had significant libraries. They collected mainly church literature, but there were also books of secular content: chronicles, chronographs, legends, stories. But the books, judging by the owner's records on some of them, were not only in monasteries, but also in boyar estates, among townspeople and even among the peasants. (7, P.89).

The production of handwritten books was mainly concentrated in monastic workshops-scriptoria, although professional scribes in cities and even in rural areas were also involved in their copying. Books were sold in markets. The Stoglavy Council, in order to protect the market from manuscripts of undesirable content, by a special decision prohibited the sale of manuscripts without first checking them by clergy. In this, as in other resolutions of the Stoglavy Council, the desire of the church to establish control over spiritual culture was manifested. Due to the increased need for books, the writing process accelerated: cursive writing became established not only in business writing, but also in book writing.

The largest event in the history of Russian culture was the emergence book printing. Printing met state needs, served to strengthen autocratic power, and strengthened the role of the church. The church service book was one of the means of disseminating official ideology. Therefore, book printing in Russia began on the initiative of the state authorities, supported by the church.

The first attempts at book printing in Russia date back to the end of the 15th century, but it began in 1553. The first editions were anonymous, that is, they did not contain the names of publishers or imprints. In total, seven such publications are currently known. Their imperfection suggests that they were created during the formation of printing. There is no information yet about the first printers. Book printing began to develop most vividly in the second half of the 16th century, when, with funds from the royal treasury, it was established printing house in Moscow (9, S.63).

2. 2 Chronicle. Literature

Traditional literary genres, as before, were imbued with journalistic content. Journalistic works proper also appear in the form of messages and letters, intended not for one addressee, but for a wide audience.

The goals of the ideological justification of the autocracy were subordinated historical works, first of all chronicles. In this regard, the official nature of chronicle writing has significantly increased. The Middle Ages were generally characterized by turning to historical material to substantiate certain political positions. Chronicle writing became a state matter and, as a rule, was associated with government circles. Previous chronicles included in the chronicle were subject to certain processing for political purposes.

The compilation undertaken on the initiative and under the leadership of Metropolitan Macarius was of great cultural significance. "The Great Four Menyas". Macarius set the goal of collecting together “all the books of the world that are found in the Russian land.” A large team of writers, editors, and copyists worked for more than 20 years to implement this plan. As a result, a grandiose vault original and translated literary monuments, consisting of twelve large format volumes (more than 27 thousand pages). It included works intended for “spiritually beneficial” reading, their composition was selected and approved by the church and was supposed to regulate the annual “reading circle” for each day (5, P.45).

All material in this collection is arranged by month. Each volume includes the lives of all the saints whose memory is celebrated in a given month, and all literature directly or indirectly related to these saints: the writings of the Greek “fathers of the church” and Russian church writers, epistles of metropolitans, church charters, charters. This also included the popular collections in Rus' “Bee”, “Golden Chain”, “Izmaragd”; in addition to them, “The Tale of the Ruin of Jerusalem” by Josephus, “Cosmography” by Cosmas Indikoplov, “The Walk” by Abbot Daniel, etc. Of course, not all works read in Rus' in the 16th century are included in this collection. There are no chronicles and chronographs, as well as works recognized by the church as “not useful.” Nevertheless, the “Great Chetya - Menaion” is a most valuable monument of Russian culture; this is the most valuable collection of works of literature before the middle of the 16th century: many of them survived only because they were included in this collection (5, p. 46).

2. 3 Architecture

Since the end of the 15th century, a new stage has begun in the development of Russian architecture The improvement of urban crafts and the increase in state financial resources were the material prerequisites for expanding the scale of stone construction in both the religious and civil spheres. An innovation of this time was the spread of brick and terracotta, brickwork replacing the traditional white stone. The growth of brick production and its use in construction opened up new technical and artistic opportunities for architects.

The unification of Russian lands in a single state destroyed the isolation of local architectural schools, contributed to their interpenetration, mutual enrichment and the formation on this basis of an all-Russian architectural style, combining simplicity of design with increased external decorativeness (2, p. 132).

Moscow was becoming an all-Russian artistic center. The grandiose construction that took place there attracted the best specialists from other feudal centers. Italian masters were invited to Moscow - Aristotle Fioravanti, Anton Fryazin, Marco Ruffo, Pietro Antonio Solari, Aleviz Novy and others, who introduced Russian masters to the architectural and construction techniques of the Italian Renaissance.

Since Moscow became the all-Russian capital, it was completely The Moscow Kremlin was rebuilt, the ensemble of which received its final design at the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th century. The appearance of the residence of the “sovereign of all Rus'” should have corresponded to the increased importance and authority of the grand ducal power. The reconstruction of the Kremlin began with the construction of the Assumption Cathedral, entrusted to Aristotle Fioravanti. The Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir served as a model for it. However, the Moscow Assumption Cathedral (1475-1479) was not a simple imitation of a model. Aristotle Fioravanti managed to create a completely new, original work, in which the traditions of Russian architecture were enriched with elements of Italian architecture. Simple and clear in its forms, but at the same time grandiose and solemn. The Assumption Cathedral has become a classic example of monumental church architecture of the 16th century. The five-domed structure that crowned the cathedral became widespread in the construction of other church buildings (3, p. 145).

The Annunciation Cathedral, built by Pskov craftsmen in 1484-1489 and part of the grand-ducal palace complex, is associated with Russian architectural traditions. Its appearance combines Pskov, Vladimir-Suzdal and early Moscow features,

In 1505-1508, Aleviz the New built the Archangel Cathedral, the appearance of which clearly expressed the secular features that had already emerged in the architecture of the Assumption Cathedral. Having retained the main structure (a cube topped with a five-domed structure), Aleviz Novy in the exterior decoration of the cathedral deviated from ancient Russian traditions, using lush architectural details of the Italian Renaissance.

In addition to religious buildings, secular buildings were also erected in the Kremlin. A new grand-ducal palace is being built, which, according to old traditions, consisted of separate buildings connected by passages, porches, and vestibules. The Faceted Chamber (Marco Ruffo and Pietro Latopio Solari, (1487-1491)) has been preserved from this palace. It served as a throne room in which ceremonial palace ceremonies and receptions of foreign ambassadors took place. The chamber is a spacious square room with a powerful pillar in the middle, on which is supported by four cross vaults. In 1485, the construction of brick walls and towers of the Moscow Kremlin began. At the same time, the architects solved not only fortification, but also artistic tasks. The walls and towers of the Kremlin, together with the rest of its buildings, formed a single picturesque ensemble. in 1505-1508, the pillar-shaped church-bell tower of Ivan Climacus (Ivan the Great) was embodied in this ensemble the ideas of the greatness and strength of the united Russian state (3, p. 149).

Other cities followed Moscow's example. Following the model of the Moscow Assumption and Archangel Cathedrals, cathedrals were erected in Volokolamsk, Dmitrov, Uglich, Rostov, as well as large monasteries: Pafnutevo-Borovsky, Kirillo-Belogorsk, Novgorod Khutypsky, Mozhaisk Luzhsky, etc. Stone palaces also appeared in specific capitals. From the palace built in Uglich at the end of the 15th century, the main chamber, built of brick and richly decorated with patterned brickwork in the upper part of the pediments, has survived.

In religious architecture, in addition to the creation of monumental cathedrals modeled on those in Moscow, there was another direction associated with the construction of small townsman and patrimonial churches. The invention of a new system of brick floors - the so-called cross vault - led to the emergence new type buildings - small pillarless temple with a single, undivided space. In the town's churches, secular elements were more clearly manifested.

Back in the 15th century, the desire of Russian architects to give the building a dynamic upward thrust was revealed (for example, the Cathedral of the Spaso-Andronikov Monastery). This was also expressed in the construction of pillar-shaped churches. The further development of this trend, the search for new architectural forms led to the emergence tent style in Russian architecture. The national originality of Russian architecture was most clearly expressed in tent-roofed buildings. The tent style made a decisive break with the traditional cross-domed type of church adopted from Byzantium. The introduction of this purely Russian form into church construction became an important victory of the folk principle in architecture, one of the sources of which was Russian folk wooden architecture: tented churches were erected “for wooden work,” i.e. modeled on wooden tent-roofed buildings (3, P.112). The appearance of this style is the highest achievement of Russian architecture of the 16th century.

The most outstanding stone monument tent architecture - Church of the Ascension in the village of Kolomenskoye, erected in 1532. The idea of ​​upward striving, ascent, embodied in the Church of the Ascension, reflected the spiritual atmosphere of the first half of the 16th century, the growth of national self-awareness, feelings and moods of the people of that time. The chronicler expressed the admiration of his contemporaries for this building in the following words: “..that church is wonderful in height and lightness, such has never been seen before in Rus'” (5, p.98).

The Cathedral of the Intercession "on the moat", erected in honor of the capture of Kazan, is a group of ten pillar-shaped churches placed on a common pedestal - a high basement - and united by internal passages and an external gallery - a walkway. The central temple is crowned with a large tent, around which are located the domes of eight chapels. All of them have an “octagon” shape, coming from the traditions of wooden architecture. The architectural and decorative decoration of the building is unusually rich and varied. The small internal area of ​​the building (in some aisles no more than 5-6 people can be accommodated), its lush external decoration and picturesque composition indicate that the Intercession Cathedral was designed for external perception and was more of a monument temple than a religious building. The unification of nine different, dissimilar churches on a common basis symbolized the unification of Russian lands and principalities in a single state (3, pp. 157-158).

In the 16th century, the fortress construction, which reflected achievements in the field of military engineering. But at the same time, practical problems of urban planning were also solved. The fortifications of this time represent integral architectural ensembles; they played a large role in shaping the appearance of cities and determined their overall layout.

In 1508-1511. The stone walls of the Nizhny Novgorod Kremlin were erected. Then kremlins were built in Tula (1514), Kolomna (1525-1531), Zaraysk (1531), Serpukhov (1556) and other cities, and the walls of the Novgorod Kremlin were reconstructed. In Moscow in 1535-1538. A second line of fortifications was erected, encircling the trade and craft district of the capital. China town. Many monasteries also became powerful fortresses: stone walls and towers of the Trinity-Sergius, Kirillo-Belozersky, Solovetsky, Pafnutyevo-Borovsky, Joseph-Volokolamsky and other monasteries were built (3, p. 158).

The grandiose fortress construction required enormous material resources and a large amount of labor...."

Among all types of art, architecture received the greatest development in the 16th century and took a huge step forward, which predetermined the subsequent development of Russian architecture

2. 4 Painting

The political and ideological situation of the late fifteenth and sixteenth centuries affected the development painting. The largest representative of the Moscow school of painting of the last quarter of the 15th - early 16th centuries was Dionysius(c. 1440-1502 or 1503). Contemporaries called him an artist, “more notorious than anyone else,” that is, the most famous. He painted a number of icons, part of the frescoes of the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin, and painted the Cathedral of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary in the Ferapontov Monastery. His works are characterized by refined designs, exquisite colors, and lush decorativeness. They are permeated with moods of solemn festivity, bright joy, in tune with the spirit of the times (6, p.143).

Painting of the 16th century is characterized by an expansion of the range of themes, an increase in interest in non-church themes from world and especially Russian history. Official ideology had an increasing influence on the ideological content of painting. The glorification and exaltation of royal power and the church became the main theme of the work of the craftsmen who carried out the orders of the Grand Duke and Metropolitan.

The official state idea of ​​the historical succession of power of the Moscow princes from the princes of Vladimir and Kyiv, and through them from the Byzantine emperors, was embodied in the painting of the Annunciation Cathedral, completed under the direction of Feodosia, son of Dionysius. The Byzantine emperors and empresses and the most revered Russian princes are depicted here (6, p. 144).

The same idea was reflected in the unpreserved, but known from the description of the 17th century, painting of the Golden Chamber of the Kremlin Palace (1547-1552). Along with biblical stories and parables used to glorify the activities of Ivan the Terrible in an allegorical form, it widely presented themes of Russian history: the adoption of Christianity in Kievan Rus, the legendary wedding of Prince Vladimir with the crown of Monomakh, etc. Allegorical figures were also depicted here - “Chastity”, “Reason”, “Truth”, etc. (6, p. 149)

The regulation of artistic creativity and its subordination to church canons had a negative impact on the development of painting. However, the church could not completely stop this process. And in these difficult conditions, new trends made their way, although with great difficulty. They are more noticeable in the work of masters associated with the townspeople's circles, and primarily in the cities of the middle Volga region - Yaroslavl, Kostroma, Nizhny Novgorod (7, p. 212). There was a process of accumulation of elements of a new direction in painting, which clearly manifested itself in the next, 17th century.

Conclusion

Thus, culture in the XIV - early XVI centuries. developed in complex and contradictory conditions. The Mongol-Tatar invasion and the Golden Horde yoke slowed down the pace and progress of the development of the ancient Russian people. And only the high level of Russian culture gave it the opportunity to survive during the most difficult period of its history. Despite the horrors of the Mongol conquest, Russian culture retained its traditional character. Territories that were not subjected to military defeat, although subordinate to the Horde (Pskov, Novgorod), played a major role in the transfer of traditions and cultural and historical experience.

If the beginning of the 14th century was characterized by stagnation and decline after the terrible blow of the Mongol hordes, then after 1380 its dynamic rise began, in which the beginning of the merging of local art schools into an all-Moscow, all-Russian culture can be traced.

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Culture of Rus' XIV–XVI centuries.

The development of Russian culture during this period was influenced by many factors. This is also the development of previous traditions, especially those related to Christian values ​​and church interests. New factors influencing culture also appeared: the gathering of Russian lands around the Moscow Principality and the creation of a single centralized state, the establishment of national identity in the fight against the Golden Horde yoke. From century to century, the role of Moscow and the Moscow Grand Dukes becomes more and more noticeable. Muscovite Rus' turned into a center not only of unification processes, but also of cultural development.

Literature . In Russian literature, the theme of the fight against the Horde yoke occupied a large place. The works of the Kulikovo cycle (“Zadonshchina”, “The Tale of Mamaev’s Massacre”) stand out especially. They are imbued with a sense of patriotism and admiration for the exploits of Russian soldiers.

In the second half of the 15th century. The old genre of walks (descriptions of travel) is experiencing a new birth. Especially popular was reading about the adventures of the Tver merchant Afanasy Nikitin, who reached India. “Walking Beyond Three Seas” is a description of an eight-year dramatic journey that ends with a return to his native land.

Chronicle traditions were preserved and multiplied. In the 14th century An all-Russian chronicle was created in Moscow, and the Chronograph, compiled in 1442, includes a description of world history.

In the first half of the 16th century. A group of educated people formed around Metropolitan Macarius who created the famous “Great Chetya Menaion”. This is a collection of the most widely read books in Rus': hagiographic literature, teachings, legends, etc. - as a rule, not of a liturgical nature, but directly related to the Orthodox tradition.

An important cultural event was the advent of printing. It is associated with the names of Ivan Fedorov and Peter Mstislavets, who created the first printed book “Apostle” (1564). This book was produced at a high printing level for that time. Due to persecution and accusations of heresy, Ivan Fedorov moved to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and continued his educational activities there. The first Russian primer with grammar was published in Lvov. Despite the difficulties, book printing continued to develop in the Moscow state - printing houses were appearing here again. The church's reaction to printing was so negative that even in the 17th century. The printed book could not supplant the handwritten one.

Socio-political thought. Among Russian written sources of the 15th–16th centuries. There are many works in which the authors reflect on the fate of Russia. The Tale of the Princes of Vladimir emphasized the idea of ​​succession of power of Moscow rulers from the Byzantine emperors. The Pskov monk Philotheus, in a letter to Vasily III, argued that Moscow is the “Third Rome”. “Two Romes have fallen, but the third stands, and the fourth will not exist,” he argued.

Certificate secularization culture are the journalistic works of Fyodor Karpov and Ivan Peresvetov. Both talked about the nature of a strong, fair state, about power.

A notable monument of spiritual culture of the 16th century. – “Domostroy”, one of the editors of which was Ivan IV’s close associate – Sylvester. In this work, which has become a model of the organization of life and behavior of Russian people over the centuries, we find instructions of a different nature: on the performance of religious rituals, advice on raising children, on the relationship between husband and wife, how to store supplies and dry clothes, when to buy goods at the market and how to receive guests.

The correspondence between Tsar Ivan the Terrible and Prince Andrei Kurbsky is interesting from the point of view of the development of the Russian language, as well as in content. It was a dispute between two ardent opponents about ways to centralize power, about the relationship between the sovereign and his subjects. The tsar defended the idea of ​​servility of all subjects in relation to autocratic power. He formulated the basic principle of despotism this way: “I am free to reward my slaves, but I am also free to execute them.” Kurbsky imagined royal power differently - the king is responsible for his actions not only before God, but also before people, he cannot violate the rights of his subjects, he must listen to wise advisers.

Architecture . Moscow becomes the capital of a huge power, the accumulation of wealth in the hands of the Moscow prince makes it possible to begin stone construction on an unprecedented scale. Dmitry Donskoy in 1366–1367 began construction of the new Moscow Kremlin. On the site of the wooden fortifications built under Ivan Kalita, a new white-stone Kremlin arose. Moscow became an impregnable fortress at that time.

The flourishing of architecture at the end of the 15th century. associated with intensive construction in Moscow. Ivan III invites Italian architects to work, among whom Aristotle Fioravanti stands out. Under his leadership, a new Assumption Cathedral was built in the Kremlin - the cathedral church of the metropolitans. The Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir was taken as a model. Fioravanti drew up a project for the construction of new walls and towers. The Kremlin and walls were built of red brick (they still exist today). True, the Kremlin towers did not yet have tents - they were erected later, in the 17th century. The internal layout of the Kremlin was finally formed. The Faceted Chamber for ceremonial receptions, the Archangel Cathedral (the burial vault of Moscow princes and tsars), the house church for sovereigns - the Annunciation Cathedral and other buildings were built here. One of the most remarkable buildings in the Kremlin is the Ivan the Great Bell Tower. It was erected on the site of the ancient church of Ivan the Climacus, and therefore received the name Ivanovskaya. It was called Great for its extraordinary height - more than 80 m. The bell tower was for a long time the tallest building in Rus'. It was founded at the beginning of the 16th century. simultaneously with the Archangel Cathedral, and was completed only in 1600, under Boris Godunov.

The construction of Moscow fortifications continued throughout the 16th century. A semi-ring of Kitay-Gorod fortifications was added to the Kremlin, and at the end of the century, “city master” Fyodor Kon erected the “White City” about 9.5 km long. F. Kon also built the walls of the Kremlin in Smolensk.

In the second half of the 16th century. From the traditions of wooden architecture, but already in stone, the tent style emerges. A remarkable example of it is the Church of the Ascension in Kolomenskoye. Tent-roofed church architecture did not spread widely, since it contradicted church canons and was prohibited by church authorities. In 1551–1561 masters Postnik Yakovlev and Barma built the Intercession Cathedral (better known as St. Basil's Cathedral) on Red Square. This building was dedicated to the capture of Kazan.

Painting . In the second half of the 14th - first half of the 15th century. two great Russian artists worked - Feofan the Greek and Andrei Rublev. Theophanes, a native of Byzantium, lived in Novgorod and then in Moscow. His frescoes and icons are characterized by a special emotionality. A. Rublev's painting is unique in its composition and its unique coloring. These features were most clearly manifested in his famous Trinity icon. The traditions of Andrei Rublev were continued after his death. The fresco paintings of Dionysius are especially notable (they are best preserved in the Ferapontov Monastery in the Belozersky region). The decisions of the Stoglavy Cathedral influenced not only architecture, but also painting. Painters were obliged to strictly adhere to Greek models and A. Rublev’s icon painting. This led to the fact that only technical writing techniques were improved.

Craft. In the XIV–XVI centuries. The development of the craft continued. The main centers of handicraft production were cities, monasteries, and some large estates. At the end of the 15th century. The Cannon Yard is being created in Moscow. The first cannons appeared in Rus' in the last third of the 14th century. In subsequent centuries, a whole school of cannon masters emerged. One of its representatives was Andrei Chokhov, creator of the famous Tsar Cannon. Its production took about 2.5 pounds of non-ferrous metals, its caliber is 89 cm, and the barrel length is almost 5.5 m.

The Tatar-Mongol invasion dealt a terrible blow to the development of Russian culture. This was reflected in the fact that the development of stone architecture stopped for a while, and some crafts disappeared. The entire XIII century. characterized by stagnation in Russian culture.

From the beginning of the 14th century. a new one has emerged rise of culture in Russian lands, which lasted during the XIV-XV centuries. In almost all large cities, such as Moscow, Novgorod, Tver, Rostov, Pskov, Nizhny Novgorod and others, monastery schools and colleges were expanded and restored; in the monasteries the correspondence of old books continued and the creation of new books, of which there were more and more.

Novgorod birch bark documents that have survived to this day indicate the presence high literacy rate among the urban population. In oral folk art, there was a noticeable spread of epics that belonged to an earlier historical period. Along with them, new legends appeared (for example, “The Tale of the City of Kitezh”). In the XIV century. expensive parchment began to be replaced by paper, and more fluent and free writing - semi-ustav - came into use.

New chronicles are being created. The first all-Russian chronicle collection is the “Trinity Chronicle”, created in Moscow in 1408 (it was lost in the Moscow fire of 1812). The creation of the Moscow chronicle code dates back to 1480. In 1442, the first Russian Chronograph appeared, compiled by Pachomius Lagofet, which uniquely examined world history, including the history of Rus'.

One of the most common literary genres was historical stories: “About the Battle of Kalka”, “About the destruction of Ryazan by Batu”, “About Mamaev’s massacre”, “Zadonshchina”. An outstanding monument of Russian culture of the 15th century. appeared “Walking across Three Seas” by the Tver merchant Afanasy Nikitin (observations about India and other countries lying between India and Russia). Valuable geographical descriptions of other territories are presented in the “walks” of the Novgorodian Stefan and the Smolensk Ignatius to Constantinople.

Church (“hagiography”) literature also became widespread: “The Life of Dmitry Donskoy”; “The Life of Stephen of Perm” by Epiphanius the Wise, “Praise of Sergius’ Virtue”, “The Life of Metropolitan Peter” by the same author.

Resumes active stone construction. Under Dmitry Donskoy, a white stone Kremlin was built in Moscow in the 15th century. - brick Kremlin with the help of Italian craftsmen. In the 15th century The Assumption Cathedral (architect - Aristotle Feoravanti), the Archangel Cathedral (the tomb of the Moscow princes), the Annunciation Cathedral (by Pskov craftsmen), and the Chamber of Faceted Stones are being built.

Russian painting XIV-XV centuries. rose to a new, higher stage of its development. In Novgorod, during the painting of the Volotovo Church, and later in Moscow at the end of the 14th and beginning of the 15th centuries. the outstanding artist Theophanes the Greek worked. Together with Simeon Cherny, he painted the Moscow Church of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary and participated in the design of the Archangel Cathedral in Moscow. The largest Russian artist of the late XIV - early XV centuries. was Andrei Rublev. Together with Theophan the Greek and the painter Prokhor from Gorodets, he painted the Annunciation Cathedral in Vladimir and the Trinity Cathedral in the Trinity-Sergius Monastery. Rublev created the famous work "Trinity". Rublev’s work is characterized by a departure from the church canons of painting; his works are striking in their emotionality.

Russian has reached great development applied arts. Outstanding examples of jewelry, wood and stone carvings, wooden sculpture, and silk embroidery have been preserved. The rise of Russian culture reflected the development of the Great Russian people.

In the 16th century, Russian culture developed under the sign of the state unification of the country and the strengthening of its independence. Regional differences are increasingly being overcome and all-Russian trends are coming to the fore.

Literature XVI century was distinguished by her journalisticism. This was explained by the struggle in society between the boyars and the progressive nobility. One of the most prominent publicists of the 16th century. - Ivan Peresvetov. He came up with reform projects aimed at creating a strong autocratic government. Another author, Ermolai-Erasmus, spoke out against the excessive strengthening of serfdom. It should be noted that the bright, talented publicists A. Kurbsky and Ivan the Terrible - in the polemic that Andrei Kurbsky opened with his message to Ivan after fleeing to Lithuania in 1564, express an archaic position: an attitude towards the state as a divine creation. True, they draw the opposite conclusions from this. Ivan - about the right to autocracy, Kurbsky - about the duty of the sovereign to take care of his subjects.

From the middle of the 16th century. Russian begins its history typography. Book publishing in Moscow began back in 1553. So-called anonymous publications were published. In 1563, Ivan Fedorov began work in Moscow. He was not only a publisher, but also an editor of books. His first publications in Moscow were books of Holy Scripture. In total, in the second half of the 16th century. About 20 large printed books were published in Russia.

Reaches a high level during this period architecture. In the first half of the 16th century. In Russia there is an intensive construction of stone churches and fortresses. The originality of Russian architecture is associated with the appearance in the 16th century. tent style: the roof of the temple was made in the shape of a multifaceted pyramid - a tent. The Church of the Ascension in Kolomenskoye (1532) and the Intercession Cathedral on Red Square (St. Basil's Cathedral) are outstanding monuments of this style. Painting in the 16th century. represented, as in the previous period, by painting of churches and iconography. Dionysius is called the continuer of Rublev’s traditions in icon painting. His works are distinguished by exquisite, sophisticated colors and designs. His most famous works are the icons of the Assumption Cathedral in the Moscow Kremlin and the painting of the Church of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary in the Ferapontov Monastery (near Vologda).

Foundry has developed greatly in Russia. In the 80s of the 15th century. A state cannon yard began to operate in Moscow. At the end of the 16th century. The guns were made by master Andrei Chokhov. In 1586, he cast the famous Tsar Cannon, weighing 40 tons, 5 m long and 890 mm in diameter, which is a true work of art.

Second half of the 16th century. turned out to be unfavorable for the development of Russian culture. In the disasters of the end of the century, many cultural processes go deep and reassert themselves only in the next century. The fall of Byzantium and the weakening of cultural ties with the countries of Central and South-Eastern Europe also played a negative role. But the main reason is the creation of a centralized Russian state, which required the mobilization of all spiritual forces and material resources, which caused increased social tension in society, a fierce struggle against heresies and free-thinking, and strict state control over all forms of art.

Since the 14th century The revival of Russian culture begins, due to the liberation of Russian lands from the Horde yoke, the formation of the Russian centralized state and the success of economic development. Gradually, an all-Russian culture begins to take shape.

Literature

In the XIV-XV centuries. Most of the chronicles are compiled in Moscow monasteries; the Gospels, lives of saints, and teachings are copied. The development and strengthening of the Russian state was accompanied by a strengthening of the position of the church in all spheres of spiritual life. In the 16th century The ideological activities of the church acquired a wide scope. The Church launched a fight against all kinds of dissent and established strict regulation of all spiritual life. The Church monitored the correct understanding of the teachings of Christ and cruelly punished freethinkers and heretics.

Painting

Russian painting in the XIV-XV centuries. reached unprecedented prosperity. Man and his spiritual world are the central theme of Russian painting.

Was a great artist Feofan the Greek, who came from Byzantium in the 70s of the 14th century. to Novgorod. Only the Deesis icons in the Annunciation Cathedral have survived to our time.

Andrey Rublev- the most famous and revered master of the Moscow school of icon painting, book and monumental painting of the 15th century. Rublev created his masterpiece - the icon “The Life-Giving Trinity” (Tretyakov Gallery).

Dionysius- leading Moscow icon painter of the late 15th - early 16th centuries. He is considered a successor to the traditions of Andrei Rublev. The most famous works of Dionysius are the wall paintings and iconostasis of the Cathedral of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary in the Ferapontov Monastery, made by the master together with his sons Theodosius and Vladimir.

Also, the XIV-XV century became the period of development of book miniatures.

Book business

Centers for literacy and education in the 16th century. There were monasteries and churches where schools were created, and there were libraries of handwritten and printed books. Until the middle of the 16th century. All books in Rus' were written by hand. WITH 1553 Russian book printing begins. IN April 1564 clerk Ivan Fedorov published the first Russian dated printed book “Apostle” (about the activities of Christ’s disciples). This was followed by the Book of Hours and other books, which were distinguished by a high level of printing.

Architecture

IN 1485 The construction of new Kremlin walls and towers began. Civil engineering is developing, a number of buildings - chambers - are being built in the Kremlin, the most famous of which is the Faceted Chamber (1487-1496). The most famous architectural monument of this period is St. Basil's Cathedral, the construction of which continued in 1554-1560.

13. “Time of Troubles” at the beginning of the 17th century.

Time of Troubles (1598-1613) in the history of the Fatherland is characterized by the weakness of state power and disobedience of the outskirts to the center, imposture, civil war and intervention, “the great ruin of the Moscow state.”

Causes of the Troubles: 1. the Rurik family was interrupted 2. beginning of the 17th century was a disaster for Russia (hunger, general discontent, people begin to leave their native villages to travel around the country) 3. oprichnina, which showed the people their lack of rights in the face of arbitrary power

After the death of Ivan IV the Terrible (1584) inherited the throne his son Feodor (1584-1598)- a person incapable of ruling. All power was in the hands of his brother-in-law, Boris Godunov.

The beginning of the Troubles was marked by the death of Ivan the Terrible's son Dmitry. After the death of Feodor, Boris Godunov was elected Tsar by the Zemsky Sobor. With his death, the Rurik dynasty on the Moscow throne ended.

IN 1601 - an impostor is declared in Poland False Dmitry (Grigory Otrepiev), posing as the son of Ivan the Terrible.

IN 1605 The boyars, having betrayed Boris (his death), swore allegiance to False Dmitry, who began to reign.

IN 1606 During the uprising, False Dmitry was killed. On the throne Vasily Shuisky. The strengthening of serfdom, instability and arbitrariness of the feudal lords caused an uprising of peasants and serfs.

1606 -the first peasant war. The main reasons: the process of enslavement, instability and turmoil in power structures. Ivan Bolotnikov-the head of the uprising of peasants and serfs from Putivl moved to Moscow.

Summer 1607., when Ivan Bolotnikov’s army was besieging Tula, a second impostor appeared in Starodub, posing as Tsarevich Dmitry ( False Dmitry II). False Dmitry II achieved some success.

IN June 1608 False Dmitry II approached Moscow. Many nobles and government officials, dissatisfied with Shuisky’s rule, moved to Tushino. Dual power was established in the country. In fact, in Russia there were two kings, two Boyar Dumas, two systems of orders. A palace coup took place in Moscow.

Tsar Vasily July 17, 1610 was dethroned. After the overthrow of Shuisky, an interregnum began in Moscow. Power passed into the hands of the boyars, who soon swore allegiance to the Polish prince Vladislav, in September 1610 The Poles entered the capital.

Some Russian cities did not support the Poles, and the country split into two camps. Period from 1610 to 1613 went down in history as "Seven Boyars"- by the number of boyars who headed the “Russian” party.

A powerful popular anti-Polish movement is rising in the country and 1611 A people's militia is formed and besieges Moscow. The militia was led by the Ryazan governor Prokopiy Lyapunov. Due to contradictions in the government of I, the militia disintegrated, but the very next year a second militia was formed in Nizhny Novgorod. His headman Kuzma Minin V September 1611 called on fellow citizens to help the Moscow state. The head of the zemstvo militia invited the steward and governor prince Dmitry Mikhailovich Pozharsky. IN October The militia took Moscow by storm and the Poles capitulated.

IN January 1613 The Zemsky Sobor was convened in the year, at which the election of a new king took place. Largely thanks to Patriarch Filaret, they put Mikhail Romanov, who was 16 years old at the time. The power of the new tsar was significantly limited by the boyars and the Zemsky Sobor, without whose blessing the tsar could not make the most important decisions.

CONSEQUENCES OF THE GREAT TROUBLES:

It is very difficult to assess the significance of the Time of Troubles for the fate of our state. The immediate events of this period led to global economic devastation And impoverishment of the country. The consequence of the turmoil was that Russia lost part of its lands, which had to be returned with heavy losses: Smolensk, western Ukraine, Kola Peninsula. For an indefinite period, one could forget about access to the sea, and therefore about trade with Western Europe. The greatly weakened Russian state was surrounded by strong enemies in the form of Poland and Sweden, and the Crimean Tatars revived. On the other hand, the role of the people in the expulsion of the Polish-Swedish invaders, the accession of the new Romanov dynasty (1613-1917) – they united society, and the self-awareness of the Russian people rose to a qualitatively new level.