The philosophical system of modern times has its main features. Cheat sheet: Main features of modern philosophy
The new era, which began in the 17th century, became an era of approval and gradual victory in Western Europe capitalism, as a new mode of production, era rapid development science and technology. Under the influence of such exact sciences as mechanics and mathematics, mechanism became established in philosophy. Within the framework of this type of worldview, nature was viewed as a huge mechanism, and man as an proactive and active worker.
The main theme of modern philosophy was the theme of knowledge. Two major movements emerged: empiricism and rationalism, which interpreted sources and nature differently human knowledge.
Supporters of empiricism (Bacon, Hobbes, Locke) argued that the main source of reliable knowledge about the world is human sensations and experience. This position is most thoroughly presented in the works of Bacon. Bacon was a supporter empirical methods cognition (observation, experiment). He considered philosophy to be an experimental science based on observation, and its subject should be the world, including the person himself. Supporters of empiricism called for relying in everything on the data of experience and human practice.
Proponents of rationalism believed that the main source of reliable knowledge is knowledge (Descartes, Spinoza, Leibniz). The founder of rationalism is Descartes, the author of the expression “question everything.” He believed that in everything one should rely not on faith, but on reliable conclusions, and nothing should be accepted as the final truth.
Along with a positive assessment of the possibilities of knowledge, philosophical agnosticism, which denied the possibility of human knowledge of the world, was also revived in the 17th century. He showed himself in the works of Berkeley and Hume, who believed that man knows only the world of phenomena, but is not able to penetrate into the depths of things, to achieve knowledge of the laws of the surrounding nature.
The views of Spinoza, who argued that nature is the cause of itself and all the processes occurring in it, had a pantheistic orientation. God is not above nature, but is its internal cause. Knowledge is achieved by reason and it is the primary condition for free human activity. German philosopher Leibniz emphasized the spiritual nature of the world. The basis of the universe are monads, as units of being, giving the world diversity and harmony.
In the 17th century, the “legal” worldview became widespread. Within its framework, the theory of “social contract” (Hobbes, Locke) developed. She explained the origin of the state as a voluntary agreement of people in the name of their own safety. This worldview professed the idea of natural human rights to freedom and property. The legal worldview expressed the sentiments of the young bourgeoisie, as a class formed in modern times.
In the development of social teachings of the New Age in the 18th century special contribution introduced the French Enlightenment (Montesquieu, Voltaire, Rousseau), which ideologically prepared French revolution 1789 - 1794 They perceived the church as a symbol of ignorance and obscurantism, a brake on the development of society, so Voltaire’s motto: “Crush the reptile!” became the slogan of the era, predetermining the demands for the separation of church and state. According to the Enlightenment, social progress is possible only with the help of reason, law, science and education. Man is a natural social being and is capable of endless development and improvement of his activities. But private property makes people unequal, gives rise to envy and enmity between them, therefore, a new society must be created on the basis of social equality and justice. The Enlightenmentists took a position of historical optimism, and their ideal was a republic as a form of democracy.
A significant contribution to the doctrine of the nature and essence of man, the ways of his upbringing, was made by the French Materialists of the 18th century: Diderot, Helvetius, Holbach. They believed that man is a product of his environment. Therefore, to change people's morals, it is necessary to change the circumstances of their lives. This idea of the Enlightenment was the source of the emergence of Marxist philosophy.
The philosophy of modern times occupies the 16th-18th, 19th centuries. This is the time of formation and formalization of many natural sciences that spun off from philosophy. Physics, chemistry, biology, mathematics and mechanics and others are becoming independent scientific branches. However, the development of general scientific methods of cognition remains a problem; there is a need to generalize and systematize the data of the natural sciences. This puts forward new tasks and determines priorities for the philosophy of the New Age. Formed philosophy of science. In the center new philosophy- theory of knowledge, processing of methods of true knowledge for all sciences. If specific “private” sciences must reveal the laws of nature, then philosophy is called upon to reveal the laws of thinking that operate in all sciences. Such famous thinkers as F. Bacon, T. Hobbes, R. Descartes, D. Locke, G. Leibniz and others are engaged in this. They are looking for the laws of reason, whose possibilities are unlimited. However, the mind is real life“clouded”, “darkened” by certain false ideas and concepts - “idols”. The idea arises: pure reason", i.e. a mind free from “idols” that penetrates into the essence of phenomena. They are actively looking for the true, main method of cognition, which will lead to eternal, complete, absolute truth. The basis of the new method is sought in sensory experience (Bacon, Hobbes, Locke), or in intellect, not reducible to human experience (Descartes, Leibniz, Malebranche, Spinoza). In any case, rationalism and analytical methods applied to all areas of reality triumph. This direction is usually called “mechanism” and “metaphysics”.
Unlike the Renaissance, a number of specific problems and attitudes appear in the philosophy of the New Age.
1. Complete secularization of science. The synthesis of science with religion, faith with reason is impossible. No authorities (antiquity, etc.) are recognized except the authority of reason itself.
2. Promotion of science to the rank of the most important activity of humanity. It is science that can enrich humanity, save it from troubles and suffering, and raise society to new stage development, ensure social progress.
3. The development of sciences and man’s final subordination of nature is possible when the main method of thinking is formed, the method of “pure” reason, capable of operating in all sciences. The theory of knowledge becomes the center of modern philosophy. Of course, other problems of philosophy do not disappear, but develop further. Including problems related to religion, morality, human problems, etc. But they are being pushed to the periphery.
In the 17th century, the enlightenment-modernist philosophical paradigm was determined, and faith in the unlimited possibilities of the mind was formed. In the New Time, in contrast to antiquity and the Middle Ages, a new idea of science was formed. Science began to be pursued for practical purposes. There was a desire to understand nature. Nature began to be understood as a practical being and therefore natural science became the main science. There is a “cleansing” of philosophy from humanism and an orientation toward knowledge of objective nature, comprehension and generalization of the results of science, and the affirmation of philosophical materialism.
A feature of the science of the New Time is, on the one hand, reliance on experimental knowledge as a means of achieving truth, free from authorities and dogmas, and, on the other hand, the success of mathematics. Mechanics (the science of the movement of bodies observed directly or with the help of instruments) became the leader of natural science among the sciences.
A mechanical and metaphysical picture of the world is formed. From the perspective of this picture of the world, all natural phenomena (machines created by the Creator) are interpreted. In this picture of the world, the role of God is reduced to a minimum - the creation of matter and its initial impulse. Further, the development of the world is subject to the laws of cause and effect.
The development of science encourages philosophers to constantly coordinate their ideas with the achievements of science. Philosophy adopts the style of thinking, ideals, and values from natural science. Emphasis of 17th century philosophers - on methodological problems. Cognition is seen as mirror reality in the human mind. The mind is assigned the role of an outside observer.
17th century - time of criticism of Medieval scholasticism. The most ardent critic of scholasticism is Rene Descartes. Francis Bacon and Thomas Hobbes argued that it is possible to build a reliable edifice of true philosophy only by relying on experimental natural science. It was they who laid the foundation of empiricism (the source of knowledge is in experience). Empiricism is characterized by the interaction of two sources of knowledge - human senses and the mind. Rene Descartes, Baruch Spinoza, Leibniz saw in mathematics the manifestation of “the natural light of the human mind, which is capable of penetrating any mystery and comprehending the truth.
The philosophy of the New Time – briefly the most important thing. We continue our acquaintance with philosophy in a short, simple presentation. In previous articles you learned about the following periods of philosophy:
So, let's turn to the philosophy of the New Time.
The 17th-18th centuries is the period to which modern philosophy belongs. It was a time when human civilization made a qualitative leap in the development of many scientific disciplines, which in turn had a huge influence on philosophy.
In the philosophy of modern times, the idea that the human mind has no limits to its power, and science has unlimited possibilities in its knowledge of the surrounding world and man, has become increasingly dominant.
Particularly characteristic of this period of development of philosophy is the tendency to explain everything from the point of view of materialism. This was due to the fact that natural science was a priority at that time and had strong influence to all spheres of social life.
The main directions of philosophy of the New Time are empiricism and rationalism
For philosophical thought characteristic of that time several distinct directions:
- empiricism,
- rationalism,
- philosophy of education,
- French materialism..
Is empiricism in philosophy?
Empiricism is a direction in philosophy that recognizes only experience and sensory perception in knowledge and downplays the role of theoretical generalizations.
Empiricism opposed rationalism and mysticism. Formed in English philosophy of the 17th century, led by Fr. Bacon (1561-1626), Hobbes, Locke.
Is rationalism in philosophy?
Rationalism is a direction in philosophy that recognizes only reason as the only source of knowledge, denying knowledge through experience and sensory perception.
The word "rationalism" comes from Latin word“reason” – ratio. Rationalism was formed under the leadership of Descartes (1596-1650), Leibniz, and Spinoza.
Philosophy of enlightenment of the 18th century
The philosophy of enlightenment of the 18th century was formed during the Age of Enlightenment. It was one of the important periods European history, was associated with the development of philosophical, scientific and social thought. It was based on freethinking and rationalism.
The Age of Enlightenment began in England under the influence of the scientific revolution of the 17th century and spread to France, Germany and Russia. Its representatives are Voltaire, Montesquieu, Diderot, Rousseau.
18th century French materialism
French materialism of the 18th century is a trend in philosophy that revived Epicureanism and interest in the philosophy of antiquity.
Formed in France in the 17th and 18th centuries. Its representatives are Lametra, Holbach, Helvetius.
Problems of New Time Philosophy
The problem of being and substance occupied a special place in the philosophy of modern times; in the opinion of philosophers, it was here that the whole essence of the world and the ability to control it lay.
Substance and its properties were the focus of attention of philosophers, since, in their opinion, the task of philosophy was to make man the master of natural forces. Therefore, the basic task was to study substance as the basic category of all things.
As a result, several trends in the study of substance have emerged in philosophy. The first of them was founded by Bacon, who believed that substance is the basis of all things. The second was founded by Locke. He, in turn, tried to comprehend substance from the point of view of epistemology.
Locke believed that concepts are based on the external world, and the objects that we see have only quantitative characteristics, and differ from each other only in primary qualities. In his opinion, matter does not have any variety. Objects differ only in their figures, rest and movement.
Hume sharply criticized the idea that substance has any material basis. In his opinion, there is only the “idea” of substance, and it was under this that he subsumed the association of perception.
Representatives this direction made significant breakthroughs in the study and further development theory of knowledge, where the main subjects of study were the problems scientific approach in philosophy and methods for a person to study the reality around him, as well as the connection between external and internal experience in combination with the problems of obtaining true knowledge.
As a result of the study of all the above problems, the main directions in the philosophy of the New Age arose - empiricism and rationalism. The founder of empiricism was F. Bacon. Rationalism was represented by Descartes and Spinoza.
The main ideas of modern philosophy
The main ideas were the principles of the independently reflective subject and methodological doubt. It also developed the method of intellectual intuition and the inductive-empirical method of understanding the world.
In addition, methods of jurisprudence and ways to protect the freedom of people were developed. The main goal was the intention to embody the ideas of freedom from religion, to build a vision of the world based on scientific knowledge.
The main ideas of the philosophy of the New Time:
Books on New Age philosophy
- V. Hösle. Geniuses of modern philosophy
- P.D.Shashkevich. Empiricism and rationalism in modern philosophy
Philosophy of the New Time. VIDEO LECTURE
Summary
I hope the article " The philosophy of the New Time - briefly the most important thing" turned out to be useful for you. We can say that the philosophy of the New Time has become significant driving force in the development of all human civilization, prepared the basis for improving the philosophical scientific paradigm and substantiated the methods of rational knowledge.
The following article is devoted to the topic “German classical philosophy”.
I wish everyonean unquenchable thirst for knowledge of yourself and the world around you, inspiration in all your affairs!
Most character traits Western philosophy of the 20th century
The philosophy of the first quarter of the 20th century is characterized by the following features. First of all, this is a period of intense philosophical activity; a large number of prominent thinkers emerge or become influential. In this regard, this era can be considered one of the most fruitful in modern history. Next, this is a period of transition. Next to the modern ones, currents of the old type remain and operate. The epigones of the 19th century are not yet considered such at all; they are active and influential. Before the World War 1914-1918. they dominate in a number of countries, in particular in England and Italy. Meanwhile, authoritative thinkers have already put forward new ideas and are ensuring their widespread dissemination. Some of them, such as Bergson and to a lesser extent Husserl, receive particularly wide recognition. The main schools are: empiricists and idealists as adherents of ideas XIX century, philosophers of life, phenomenologists and neorealists as representatives of modernity
Main periods of development of Western European philosophy
The philosophy of the 19th century can be roughly divided into two large eras:
1. Philosophical teachings that developed as attempts to create an alternative to the absolute system of Hegelianism (30 - 60);
2. Philosophical schools that originated from the teachings of the first era and are trying to isolate the main integrating factor of the worldview (60s - 90s).
The philosophy of the twentieth century can also be divided into several eras:
1 Theories genetically coming from the developments of the second half of the 19th century centuries, but having an instrumental-applied orientation, trying to create an effective methodology for scientific knowledge, aesthetic understanding of the world and the establishment of social justice (10-40s);
2 Theories originating from the convergence of previously antagonistic teachings, seeking new grounds for the integration of knowledge and social development(40s – 60s);
3 Theories are predominantly eclectic, but focused on the search for new ideological foundations of knowledge and social practice (70s - 90s).
19th century philosophy
It begins with the teachings of three major thinkers K. Marx, O. Comte, A. Schopenhauer.
The Basic Question of Philosophy
The main question of philosophy is the question of the relationship of consciousness to being, thinking to matter, nature, considered from two sides: firstly, what is primary - spirit or nature, matter or consciousness - and, secondly, how does knowledge about the world relate to the world itself, or, in other words, whether consciousness corresponds to being, whether it is capable of correctly reflecting the world.
Bearers of public consciousness
Social consciousness is a set of ideas, theories, views, ideas, feelings, beliefs, emotions of people, moods that reflect nature, the material life of society and the entire system public relations. Social consciousness is a part of social existence that arose simultaneously and in unity with it, necessary condition its occurrence. But at the same time, social existence and social consciousness are different and relatively independent.
Special social phenomenon, distinguished by its own characteristics, peculiar only to it, specific patterns of functioning and development. Social consciousness, reflecting all the complexity and contradictory nature of social existence, is also contradictory and has a complex structure.
Differences between cultural-historical and world-historical approaches to society
Modern philosophy of history is a relatively independent area of philosophical knowledge, which is devoted to understanding the qualitative uniqueness of the development of society in its difference from nature. Philosophy of history examines several the most important problems:
Focus and the meaning of the story,
Methodological approaches to the typology of society,
Criteria periodization of history,
Criteria for the progress of the historical process.
historical development in general, is objective in nature, since the life of people, wherever and whenever it takes place, is based on the need to satisfy material needs,
The role of aesthetic values in human life
Aesthetic is understood as a specific side of human existence that is sensually perceived and brings pleasure and pleasure. Contrasted with the aesthetic (or beautiful) is the unaesthetic nature of being (or the ugly). Ideas about beauty and ugliness are associated with an understanding of harmony, the correspondence of parts to the whole, coherence, morality, spirituality and sincerity.
All objects and phenomena of real and conceivable reality can have aesthetic values, although the values themselves have neither a physical nor a mental nature. Their essence lies in significance, not in factuality.
Indicate what is the ratio of religious and moral values
Describe the structure of philosophical knowledge
Ontology is a branch of philosophy, the doctrine of being, of existence, of the forms and most general features and principles of the structure of existence.
Ontology: philosophy of nature, man, society
Epistemology is a section of philosophy, the doctrine of knowledge, prerequisites, structures cognitive process, relationship, meaning to reality, criteria of reliability and truth of the results of knowledge
epistemology: philosophy methodology, general theory knowledge
Axiology is a branch of philosophy, the doctrine of values, philosophical theory universally valid principles that determine the direction human activity from moral and aesthetic positions.
Axiology: theory of values, ethics, aesthetics
What is the unity of the biological and social in man?
By his essence, man is a social being. At the same time, he is a child of nature and cannot, in his existence, go beyond its boundaries and function regardless of his own biological nature. The biological in a person is expressed in genes, in morphophysiological ones. electrochemical, neuro-brain and other processes of his body. The social and biological are in a person in an inextricable unity, the sides of which are the personality as his “ social quality"and the organism that forms its natural basis. the biological in man is realized and satisfied in social form. The natural-biological side of human existence is mediated and “humanized” sociocultural factors. This also applies to satisfying such purely biological needs, like procreation, food, drink, etc. True, it should be noted that this “humanization” of nature in practice does not always mean its ennobling.
What is the difference between scientific and non-scientific knowledge?
Scientific knowledge, in contrast to metaphysical knowledge, is a description of sensory data; through a successive number of steps, any scientific statement can be reduced to an empirically confirmed one.
Two types of knowledge according to Kant
Kant distinguishes two types of knowledge (and cognition): experimental, based on experience (from a posteriori - a posteriori) and non-experiential (from a priori - a priori).
The concept of worldview
Worldview is a holistic view of the world and a person’s place in it
Concept of being
Being is a philosophical concept that captures the aspect of the existence of a being in contrast to its essence. What really exists. This concept captures the most common thing in things – their simple presence. If essence is determined by the question: “What is a being?”, then being is determined by the question: “What does it mean that a being is?” Since being can be understood as unique (see Parmenides), the term “being” is often used to designate the world as a whole. Subject of study of ontology. Opposite concepts are non-existence and nothingness. Essential philosophical problems- the relationship between being and thinking, the relationship between being and time, the relationship between being and non-existence.
the entire total objective and subjective reality
Dialectics
(the art of conversation, argument), philosophical doctrine about the formation and development of being and knowledge and a method of thinking based on this teaching. In the history of philosophy, various interpretation of dialectics: as a doctrine of eternal formation and variability of being (Heraclitus); the art of dialogue, achieving truth through confrontation of opinions (Socrates); the method of dismembering and linking concepts in order to comprehend the supersensible (ideal) essence of things (Plato); the doctrine of the coincidence (unity) of opposites (Nikolai Cusansky, G. Bruno); way of destroying the illusions of the human mind, which, striving for a whole and absolute knowledge, inevitably becomes entangled in contradictions (Kant); a universal method of comprehending the contradictions (internal impulses) of the development of being, spirit and history (Hegel); doctrine and method put forward as the basis for knowledge of reality and its revolutionary transformation (Marx, Engels).
Relative truth
Partial knowledge of the subject
Relative truth is a philosophical concept that reflects the assertion that absolute truth (or ultimate truth) is difficult to achieve. According to this theory, one can only approach the absolute truth, and as one approaches, new ideas are created and old ones are discarded. Theories that assert the existence of absolute truth are often called metaphysics, while theories of relative truth are called relativism. The concept of relative truth is used in the doctrine of dialectics. A type of relative truth is truth. Relative truth always reflects the current level of our knowledge about the nature of phenomena. For example, the statement “The Earth rotates” is an absolute truth, and the statement that the Earth rotates at such and such a speed is a relative truth, which depends on the methods and accuracy of measuring this speed
Absolute truth
Complete knowledge of the subject
Absolute truth is the source of everything, that from which everything came. Absolute truth is not truth as a process, it is static, unchanging (if it is dynamic, then it can become more or less absolute, therefore, it becomes a relative truth). It is the knowledge of absolute truth that is the good to which philosophy should strive, but more often we observe a departure of modern philosophy from ontological issues. The human mind will always be limited by certain limits, and it does not have the ability to fully reveal the absolute truth
Unscientific knowledge
Non-scientific knowledge is such forms cognitive activity, which arise as: 1) primary forms of understanding reality, preceding scientific knowledge; 2) as knowledge that does not correspond to generally accepted criteria for the construction and justification of the proposed concepts; 3) as knowledge that complements existing species scientific knowledge; 4) as knowledge contrary to science, based on ignoring empirical facts, characterized by extreme authoritarianism and reduced criticism.
knowledge that does not fit into the rigid canons of scientific rationality, and also represents a way of mastering reality that is different from science
Understanding
a universal operation of thinking, which is an assessment of an object (text, behavior, natural phenomenon) based on some sample, standard, norm, principle, etc. P. involves the assimilation of new content and its inclusion in the system of established ideas and concepts
Genesis, matter, space, time
TEST QUESTIONS
1. Indicate the most important ethical principles of Kant’s philosophy
1. Act according to rules that can become universal law.
2. Do as you see fit
3. The basis for a person’s actions should be the awareness that man himself is the highest value, and not a means of achieving truth.
2. Which definition of worldview do you agree with?
1. Attitude
2. Knowledge about the world
3. Practical experience person
4. The set of views, assessments, norms and attitudes of a person in relation to the world
3. Definition of movement
1. Any movement in general
2. Lack of peace
3. Any change at all
4. Attribute of matter
4. What do you understand by scientific picture peace?
1. A holistic view of social and natural processes
2. An image of the world based on philosophical and ideological principles
3. An integrative image of the world created on the basis of data from the natural and human sciences
4. An image of the world created on the basis of individual sciences
5. The defining criterion of social progress
1. Level of development of productive forces
2. The degree of development of human freedom???
3. Level of development of the spiritual culture of society
4. Level of development of public morality
6. Factors contributing to the emergence of consciousness
1. Division of labor
2. Invention of tools
3. Sign systems
4. Cultural objects
5. Improving public relations
7. The most characteristic features of existentialism
1. Interest in personality problems
2. Representation of existence as the integrity of subject and object
3. Identification of freedom and existence
4. Interest in the problem of time
5. Rationalism
6. Pragmatism
7. Tragedy
1. Identity
2. Absolute idea
3. Controversy
4. Quantity
5. Quality
6. Matter
7. Space
8. Relative idea
9. Measure
9.in this list, indicate the forms of sensory cognition and abstract thinking
1. Feeling
2. Display
3. Perception h
4. Presentation h
5. Irritability
6. Concept a
7. Judgment a
8. Inference a
9. Reflex
10. Intuition
10.Include everything global problems that are on this list
1. The problem of education
2. Energy problem
3. The problem of agricultural production
5. Food problem
6. The problem of combating terrorism
7. The problem of war and peace in general
8. Demographic problem
The most characteristic features of Western European philosophy of modern times
Philosophy of the New Age - the period of development of philosophy in Western Europe in XVII-XVIII centuries, characterized by the emergence of capitalism, the rapid development of science and technology, and the formation of an experimental and mathematical worldview. This period is sometimes called the era of the scientific revolution. Sometimes the philosophy of the New Age also includes, in whole or in part, the philosophy of the 19th century. Rationalists, mainly in France and Germany, proposed that all knowledge must begin with certain "innate ideas" present in the mind. The main representatives of this trend were Rene Descartes, Baruch Spinoza, Gottfried Leibniz and Nicholas Malebranche. Empiricists believed that knowledge must begin with sensory experience. Key figures in this movement are John Locke, George Berkeley and David Hume
During the 16th and 17th centuries, in the most advanced countries of Western Europe, a new, capitalist mode of production developed within the feudal system. The bourgeoisie turns into independent class. Feudal owners begin to adapt to developing capitalist relations. An example of this is the fencing of pastures in England, as wool is needed for the textile industry.
At this time, a number of bourgeois revolutions took place: the Dutch (late 16th century), English (mid-17th century), French (1789-1794).
Natural science is developing. This is due to the needs of developing production.
At this time, the process of secularization of the spiritual life of society takes place.
Education ceases to be church and becomes secular.
General characteristics of modern philosophy
This time is characterized by a transition from religious, idealistic philosophy to philosophical materialism and the materialism of natural scientists, since materialism corresponds to the interests of the sciences. Both of them begin their criticism of scholasticism by posing the question of the knowability of the world. Two trends emerge in epistemology: sensationalism and rationalism. Sensualism - This is a doctrine in epistemology that recognizes sensations as the only source of knowledge. Sensualism is inextricably linked with empiricism- all knowledge is grounded in experience and through experience. Rationalism- a doctrine that recognizes reason as the only source of knowledge.
However, modern materialism could not move away from metaphysics. This is due to the fact that the laws of development and movement of the world are understood only as mechanical ones. Therefore, the materialism of this era is metaphysical and mechanistic.
Modern rationalism is characterized by dualism. Two principles of the world are recognized: matter and thought.
Methods of understanding the world are being developed. Sensualism uses induction- movement of thought from the particular to the general. Rationalism is based on deduction- movement of thought from the general to the specific.
The main representatives of modern philosophy
Francis Bacon (1561-1626). He is the founder of empiricism. Cognition is nothing but an image outside world in the human mind. It starts with sensory knowledge, which need experimental verification. But Bacon was not a supporter of extreme empiricism. This is evidenced by his differentiation of experience into fruitful experience(brings direct benefit to a person) and luminous experience(the purpose of which is knowledge of the laws of phenomena and the properties of things). Experiments should be carried out according to a certain method - induction(movement of thought from the particular to the general). This method provides for five stages of the study, each of which is recorded in the corresponding table:
1) Presence table (listing all cases of the occurring phenomenon)
2) Table of deviation or absence (all cases of absence of one or another characteristic or indicator in the presented items are entered here)
3) Table of comparison or degrees (comparison of the increase or decrease of a given characteristic in the same subject)
4) Drop table (exception) individual cases, which are not found in this phenomenon, not typical for him)
5) “Fruit dumping” table (forming a conclusion based on what is common in all tables)
He considered the main obstacle to the knowledge of nature to be the contamination of people’s consciousness idols- false ideas about the world.
Idols of the clan - attributing properties to natural phenomena that are not inherent to them.
Idols of the cave - caused by subjectivity human perception the surrounding world.
The idols of the market or square are generated by the incorrect use of words.
Idols of the theater arise as a result of the subordination of the mind to erroneous views.
René Descartes (1596-1650). The basis of Descartes' philosophical worldview is the dualism of soul and body. There are two substances independent of each other: immaterial (property - thinking) and material (property - extension). Above both these substances, God rises as the true substance.
In his views on the world, Descartes acts as a materialist. He put forward the idea of the natural development of the planetary system and the development of life on earth according to the laws of nature. He views animal and human bodies as complex mechanical machines. God created the world and, through his action, preserves in matter the amount of motion and rest that he put into it during creation.
At the same time, in psychology and epistemology, Descartes acts as an idealist. In the theory of knowledge he stands on the position of rationalism. Illusions of the senses make the testimony of sensations unreliable. Errors in reasoning make the conclusions of reason doubtful. Therefore, it is necessary to begin with universal radical doubt. What is certain is that doubt exists. But doubt is an act of thinking. Maybe my body doesn't really exist. But I know directly that as a doubter, a thinker, I exist. I think, therefore I exist. All reliable knowledge is in the human mind and is innate.
The basis of knowledge is intellectual intuition, which gives rise to such a simple, clear idea in the mind that it does not give rise to doubt. The mind, based on these intuitive views based on deduction, must derive all the necessary consequences.
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679). The substance of the world is matter. The movement of bodies occurs according to mechanical laws: all movements from body to body are transmitted only through a push. People and animals are complex mechanical machines, whose actions are entirely determined by external influences. Animate automata can store the impressions they receive and compare them with previous ones.
The source of knowledge can only be sensations - ideas. Subsequently, the initial ideas are processed by the mind.
Distinguishes two states of human society: natural and civil. Natural state is based on the instinct of self-preservation and is characterized by a “war of all against all.” Therefore, it is necessary to seek peace, for which everyone must renounce the right to everything and thereby transfer part of their right to others. This transfer is accomplished through a natural contract, the conclusion of which leads to the emergence of civil society, that is, the state. Hobbes recognized absolute monarchy as the most perfect form of state.
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716). Since each thing is active and not passive, that is, each thing has an action, then each of them is a substance. Each substance is a “unit” of being, or monad. The monad is not a material, but a spiritual unit of existence, a kind of spiritual atom. Thanks to monads, matter has the ability of eternal self-motion.
Every monad is both form and matter, for any material body has a certain shape. The form is not material and represents a purposefully acting force, and the body is a mechanical force. Each monad is at the same time both the basis of its actions and their goal.
As substances, monads are independent of each other. There is no physical interaction between them. However, monads are not unconditionally isolated: each monad reflects the entire world system, the entire collection of monads.
Development is only a change in the original forms through infinitesimal changes. In nature, everywhere there is a continuous process of changing things. In the monad there is a continuous change arising from its internal principle. An infinite variety of moments revealed in the development of the monad is hidden in it. It is ideal and is a performance.
Leibniz calls the power of representation inherent in monads perception. This is the unconscious state of monads. Apperception - this is consciousness of one's own internal state. This ability is characteristic only of higher monads - souls.
In epistemology, it is based on the idea of innate ideas. Innate ideas are not ready-made concepts, but only possibilities of the mind that have yet to be realized. Therefore, the human mind is like a block of marble with veins that outline the outlines of the future figure that a sculptor can carve from it.
He distinguishes two types of truths: truths of fact and metaphysical (eternal) truths. Eternal truths are found with the help of reason. They do not need to be justified by experience. Truths of fact are revealed only through experience.
Baruch (Benedict) Spinoza(1632-1677) taught that the essence is only one substance - nature, which is the cause of itself. Nature is, on the one hand, a creative nature, and on the other, a created nature. As a creative nature, it is a substance, or, which is the same thing, God. By identifying nature and God, Spinoza denies the existence of a supernatural being, dissolves God in nature, and thereby justifies a materialistic understanding of nature. Establishes an important distinction between essence and existence. The existence of a substance is both necessary and free because there is no cause that impels a substance to act except its own essence. An individual thing does not follow from substance as from its proximate cause. It can only follow from another finite thing. Therefore, every single thing does not have freedom. The world of concrete things must be distinguished from substance. Nature exists on its own, independent of the mind and outside the mind. An infinite mind could comprehend the infinity of substances in all its forms and aspects. But our mind is not infinite. Therefore, he comprehends the existence of substance as infinite only in two aspects: as extension and as thinking (attributes of substance). Man as an object of knowledge was no exception. Man is nature.
John Locke (1632-1704). Human consciousness has no innate ideas. It's similar clean slate, on which knowledge is recorded. The only source of ideas is experience. Experience is divided into internal and external. The first corresponds to sensation, the second to reflection. Ideas of sensation arise from the influence of things on the senses. Ideas of reflection arise when considering the internal activities of the soul. Through sensations, a person perceives the qualities of things. Qualities can be primary (copies of these qualities themselves - density, extension, figure, movement, etc.) and secondary (color, taste, smell, etc.)
Ideas acquired from sensations and reflection constitute only the material for knowledge. To gain knowledge it is necessary to process this material. Through comparison, combination and abstraction, the soul transforms simple ideas of sensation and reflection into complex ones.
Locke distinguishes two types of reliable knowledge: indisputable, exact knowledge and probable knowledge, or opinion.
