Peoples of foreign Europe. Peoples of Eastern Europe: composition, culture, history, languages

AND LANGUAGES common throughout most of Asia and almost all of Europe; belong to the Caucasian tribe, embracing: Hindus, Persians, Greeks, Romans, Germans, Slavs and Celts. Dictionary of foreign words included in the Russian language.... ...

The peoples of Oceania at the beginning of European colonization- Unlike Australia, Oceania has archaeological monuments and even written monuments, but the former have not yet been explored much, and the latter are only being deciphered. Therefore, the study of its history is based mainly on anthropological data... ... The World History. Encyclopedia

Indo-Europeans Indo-European languages ​​Anatolian · Albanian Armenian · Baltic · Venetian Germanic · Illyrian Aryan: Nuristanian, Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Dardic... Wikipedia

INDO-EUROPEAN PEOPLES AND LANGUAGES distributed throughout most of Asia and almost all of Europe; belong to the Caucasian tribe, embracing: Hindus, Persians, Greeks, Romans, Germans, Slavs and Celts. Dictionary of foreign words included in... ... Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language

Migration pattern of Indo-Europeans in 4000-1000. BC e. in accordance with " Kurgan hypothesis" The pink area corresponds to the supposed ancestral homeland of the Indo-Europeans (Samara and Sredny Stog cultures). The orange area corresponds to... ... Wikipedia

Contents 1 History 2 Life at the time of the arrival of Europeans 3 XVII - XVIII centuries ... Wikipedia

Anthropology of Russians is a complex of hereditarily determined characteristics that characterize the genotype and phenotype of Russians. Most anthropological and genetic indicators of Russians are close to the European average. Contents... Wikipedia

This term has other meanings, see White. White people (English White people, in American English also Caucasian people) is a historical and cultural ethnographic term used in various contexts for ... ... Wikipedia

I Contents: I. General concepts. II. Historical sketch of E. from ancient times to early XIX table. III. European Europe in the 19th and early 20th centuries. IV. E. from individual countries (E. statistics): from Great Britain, Germany, Italy, Austria-Hungary, Russia and... ... encyclopedic Dictionary F. Brockhaus and I.A. Ephron

The son of the archpriest of the Moscow Commercial School, (b. May 5, 1820 in Moscow, died there on October 4, 1879), is one of the largest representatives of Russian historical science of the 19th century. S. was lonely in the family, since his sisters, significantly... ... Large biographical encyclopedia

Books

• , Weiss G.. The book is a reprint of 1875. Despite the fact that serious work has been done to restore the original quality of the publication, some pages may...
• External life of peoples from ancient times to our times. T. 2. History of clothing and utensils in the Middle Ages from the 4th to the 14th centuries to our time. Part 1. Byzantium and the East. Part 2. European peoples.
• Consuls in the Christian states of Europe and the North American United States. 1894. T. 2. History of clothing and utensils in the Middle Ages from the 4th to the 14th centuries to our time. Part 1. Byzantium and the East. Part 2. European peoples (Fragment - 70 pages). , Weiss G.. This book will be produced in accordance with your order using Print-on-Demand technology.

The book is a reprint of 1875. Despite the fact that a serious… Man began to populate Europe as the glacier retreated. The most ancient settlements arose approximately 22 thousand years ago on the territory of the modern Vladimir region and in England. As a result of climate warming, the glacier retreated at a speed of approximately 1 km. per year, and the man followed on his heels. 10 thousand years ago, human settlements already existed on the territory of modern Denmark, 9 thousand in Finland, 8 thousand in Sweden and Norway. Experts believe that Europeans at that time looked like modern inhabitants Northern Europe Sami, who have the external features of Caucasians and Mongoloids. Even 8 thousand years ago there was one ancient European language. From its roots in Europe, there remains, apparently, only one language, which was formed later - Basque. About 5-7 thousand years ago, modern Indo-European languages ​​developed. Over the course of many millennia, the formation of the main ethnic groups in Europe took place. By the 5th century AD.

their main features developed and their geography formed

In addition to the named peoples, the picture was complemented by the so-called “ethnic uniques”. First of all, this applies to the Greeks, the oldest ethnic group in Europe, which flourished in the 8th-5th centuries. BC e. The self-name of the ethnic group - Hellenes (and the country - Hellas) did not take root among other peoples, but the name given to them in Southern Italy - Greeks - came into use. Basques live compactly on the Iberian Peninsula and speak a complex, ancient language. They call themselves "Euskaldunak", which means "Basque speakers." At the other end of Europe, on the Balkan Peninsula, Albanians traditionally lived, descendants of the more ancient inhabitants of this region. Their self-name is “shkiptar”, meaning “those who speak clearly.” Basques and Albanians lived in completely different “linguistic environments”. Maybe that's why they called themselves that? In western Europe, pockets of Celtic populations have been preserved, and previously the Celts lived on the mainland of Central Europe. Later, fate brought them to the British Isles.

In the V-X centuries. Europe was experiencing the era of the Great Migration of Peoples, which geographically covered almost all of Europe and the northern part of Africa.

By the middle of the 16th century. (this was the Renaissance) almost all major ethnic communities, predecessors of modern European nations.

From the 16th century and to this day there have been no major changes in the ethnic composition of the European population. The millions of non-European immigrants who arrived in the region mainly after the Second World War have not brought major changes to the ethnic picture of Europe's 700 million people. Multinational empires - Russian, Ottoman and Austria-Hungary - fell apart without creating united nations (and this was impossible under those conditions). They were replaced by Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia and the USSR. However, they also ceased to exist. In general, we can say that in Western Europe, ethnic processes at the end of the 20th century. proceed relatively calmly, and in the east they are often accompanied by the desire to create “ethnically pure” states (see also the article ““). This leads to numerous conflicts and even wars (as is happening in the former Yugoslavia). The only example of a calm, civilized national “divorce” in the east was the former Czechoslovakia.

Most European countries are mononational, in which the vast majority of the population is made up of people of the same nationality.

Ncountries of foreignEurope

Population growth in Overseas Europe, as discussed in Chapter I of this work, had some peculiarities. According to available statistics, the population of foreign Europe over the past three centuries (due to a significant decrease in mortality) has grown faster than in other parts of the world.

General information about emigration overseas) the rate of population growth began to decline, and currently Foreign Europe ranks last in the world in terms of population growth.

The total population in the countries of Foreign Europe was 421.3 million people in mid-1959, having increased by almost 40 million compared to the pre-war population (1938). This increase would, of course, have been even more significant if not enormous human losses and a decrease in the birth rate during the war; it is enough to point out that the direct military losses of the population alone amounted to over 15 million people. It should be emphasized that although the population of almost all European countries was drawn into the war, its influence on the population dynamics of individual nations was far from the same; Very indicative in this regard is the sharp decline in the number of the Jewish population of Europe, as well as a significant decline in the number of Poles, Germans, etc. We will dwell on the characteristics of these phenomena below.

As of mid-1961, the total population of Foreign Europe was over 428 million people and continues to increase by approximately 3.5 million people per year. Most European countries are characterized by low mortality (from 9 to 12%) and average birth rate (from 15 to 25%). The rate of natural population growth in Foreign Europe is generally lower than in other parts of the world, but there are significant differences in individual European countries. The highest natural increase, associated, as a rule, with increased fertility, was noted in the countries of Eastern and Southern of Eastern Europe(Albania, Poland, etc.) and in Iceland, the lowest is in the countries of Central Europe (GDR\Luxembourg, Austria). The development of medicine and the associated decrease in mortality in European countries has led to an increase in average life expectancy. In countries characterized by low fertility, this was accompanied by an increase in the percentage of elderly people. Currently, for every 100 people under the age of 20, there are elderly people (over 60 years old) in Belgium - 59, Great Britain - 55, Sweden - 53, etc. This process of “aging” of nations poses serious problems for some countries (caring for the elderly, a decreasing percentage of the productive population, etc.).

The modern ethnic composition of Foreign Europe developed during a long historical process of development and interaction of numerous peoples who differed from each other in anthropological characteristics, language and culture. However, these differences, perhaps due to the relatively small size of Foreign Europe itself, were not as significant as in other parts of the world. The predominant part of the population of Foreign Europe, according to anthropological characteristics, belongs to the large Caucasoid race, which is divided into two main parts (small races) - the southern Caucasoid (or Mediterranean) and the northern Caucasoid, between which numerous transitional types can be traced.

The population of Foreign Europe speaks mainly languages ​​of the Indo-European linguistic family. The largest language groups of this family are Slavic, Germanic and Romance. Slavic peoples (Poles, Czechs, Bulgarians, Serbs, etc.) occupy Eastern and Southeastern Europe; Romanesque peoples (Italians, French, Spaniards, etc.) - Southwestern and Western Europe; Germanic peoples (Germans, English, Dutch, Swedes, etc.) - Central and Northern Europe. The peoples of other language groups of the Indo-European family - Celtic (Irish, Welsh, etc.), Greek (Greeks), Albanian (Albanians) and Indian (Gypsies) - are not numerous. In addition, a fairly significant part of the population of Foreign Europe belongs to the Uralic language family, represented by the peoples of the Finnish (Finns and Sami) and Ugric (Hungarians) groups. Belongs to the Semito-Hamitic language family in Europe, a small people of the Semitic group are the Maltese, to the Altai family - peoples Turkic group(Turks, Tatars, Gagauz). The Basque language occupies a special place in the linguistic classification system. Among the population of Foreign Europe there are many people whose language belongs to other language groups and families, but almost all of them are relatively recent immigrants from the countries of Africa, Asia and America.

Formation of the ethnic composition of Foreign Europegoes back to ancient timesness. One of the most important stages of this process is the emergence of the Roman Empire and its spread among its peoples. Latin language(“Vulgar Latin”), on the basis of which the Romance languages ​​were subsequently formed, as well as the period of long migrations across Europe of various tribes and peoples that followed the fall of the Roman Empire (the so-called era of the great migration of peoples - III-IX centuries AD) . It was during this period that German-speaking peoples spread throughout Central and Northern Europe, penetrating, in particular, the British Isles, and began to move east, while Slavic peoples settled throughout Eastern Europe and occupied almost the entire Balkan Peninsula. Big influence The ethnic history of the countries of Eastern and South-Eastern Europe was influenced by the resettlement in the 9th century. from the Urals to the region of the middle reaches of the Danube of Ugric tribes, and then, in the 14th-15th centuries, the capture of the Balkan Peninsula by the Turks and the settlement of significant groups of the Turkish population there.

Europe is the birthplace of capitalism and national movements. Overcoming feudal fragmentation, the development of economic and cultural ties, the spread of a common literary language, etc. - created the conditions for the formation of nationalities. However, this process is different countries walked differently. It manifested itself most clearly in the large economically developed centralized states of Western and Northern Europe (France, Anglia, etc.)” Among the peoples who make up the majority of the population and occupy a dominant position in these states (the French, the British, etc.), and essentially ended there back in the 17th-18th centuries. Political fragmentation of some countries of Central and Southern Europe (Germany, Italy), national oppression in the countries of Eastern Europe included in the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and Turkish rule in South-Eastern Europe slowed down the processes of national consolidation, however, even here in the second half of the 19th century. most of the currently existing large nations (German, Czech, etc.) were formed. The formation of some nations (Polish, Romanian, etc.) was essentially completed only after the First World War, when, as a result of the victory of the Great October Socialist Revolution in Russia and the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, these peoples were reunited in new state formations. After the end of the Second World War, states of people's democracy arose in the countries of Eastern Europe (Poland, Czechoslovakia, Romania, etc.), where the transformation of the old bourgeois nations (Polish, Romanian, etc.) into socialist nations began; Currently, this process is already in its final stage.

As for small nations and especially national minorities in the countries of Foreign Europe, the process of their national development was slowed down, and in some cases even stopped altogether. Currently, ethnic assimilation is highly developed among such national minorities; being drawn into the general economic and cultural life of the country and not having sufficiently favorable conditions for the development of their language and national culture, they gradually merge with the main nationality of the country. For example, significant groups of Catalans and Galicians in Spain, Bretons in France, Scots and Welsh in Great Britain, Frisians in the Netherlands, Friuls in Italy and some other smaller peoples no longer have a clear national identity. It should be noted that in some European countries processes of ethnic consolidation - the merging of two or more peoples into new nations - continue to develop. In Switzerland and partly in Belgium, where multilingual population groups participate in these processes, evidence of consolidation is the strengthening of economic and cultural communication, accompanied by an increase in bilingualism; in the Netherlands, where peoples with related languages ​​participate in ethnic consolidation, evidence of this is the spread of a new common ethnic name - “Dutch”.

Migration of the population from one country to another in search of work, as well as for political or other reasons, had a great influence on the formation of the ethnic composition of the countries of Foreign Europe in the last hundred years, when the contours of the main nationalities were already fully defined. Significant population migrations occurred in the first half of the 20th century. In 1912-1913 As a result of the Balkan Wars, significant groups of the Turkish population moved from the countries of the Balkan Peninsula to Turkey. This process resumed in 1920-1921. during the Greco-Turkish War and continued in subsequent years; Before 1930, about 400 thousand Turks moved from Greece to Turkey, and about 1200 thousand Greeks moved to Greece from Turkey. After the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, significant groups of Austrians and Hungarians left the newly formed states (Romania, Czechoslovakia, etc.) and went to Austria and Hungary, respectively. During the period between the first and second world wars, population migrations caused by economic reasons, and the main migration flows went from the east and south to the west and north, i.e. from industrially backward capitalist countries (Poland, Romania, etc.) to more developed countries characterized by low natural population growth (France, Belgium, etc. .). For example, in France, according to the 1931 census, there were 2,714 thousand foreigners and 361 thousand naturalized, that is, those who accepted French citizenship. To these migrations Migration for political reasons (political emigrants and Jews from Germany and Austria to Great Britain and other countries, refugees from Francoist Spain to France, etc.) joined the population already in the pre-war years.

The events of the Second World War caused new significant population shifts associated with the flight and evacuation of civilians from areas of military action and from German-occupied territory, the forced removal of workers to Germany, etc. Important had arisen during the war years and continued throughout post-war years the relocation of significant groups of people of various nationalities from one country to another.

The most dramatic changes in the national composition occurred in a number of countries in Eastern and South-Eastern Europe, which was primarily associated with a sharp reduction in the German population in these countries. Before the start of the war, there were over 12 million Germans in the east and southeast of Europe, outside the modern borders of the GDR and the Federal Republic of Germany, mainly in Poland, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Hungary and Romania. Some of them, after the defeat of Germany, left with the retreating German troops, and the bulk were resettled from there after the war, in 1946- 1947, in accordance with the decisions of the Potsdam Conference of 1945; Currently, there are about 700 thousand Germans left in these countries.

The Jewish population has decreased greatly, the number of which in the countries of Foreign Europe (mainly in Poland, Romania and Hungary) amounted to over 6 million people in 1938, and currently amounts to only about 13 million people (mainly in Great Britain, France, Romania). The decline in the Jewish population was caused by the extermination of Jews by the Nazis and (to a lesser extent) by post-war migrations of Jews to Palestine (and then Israel) and other countries around the world. Speaking about changes in the ethnic composition in the countries of Eastern Europe during the war or immediately after it, we should also say about a series of population exchanges (mutual repatriations), associated either with the establishment of new state borders (population exchange between Bulgaria and Romania, Poland and the USSR, Czechoslovakia and USSR, Yugoslavia and Italy), or with the desire of states to achieve greater homogeneity of their national composition (population exchange between Hungary and Czechoslovakia, Hungary and Yugoslavia, etc.). In addition, part of the Turkish population of Bulgaria moved to Turkey, and part of the Armenian population from the countries of South-Eastern and Western Europe moved to Soviet Armenia, etc.

The impact of the events of the Second World War on changes in the national composition of the countries of Central, Western and Northern Europe was small and was expressed mainly in the influx of population groups from the countries of Eastern and South-Eastern Europe. The bulk of the arrivals were refugees and so-called displaced persons, most of them former prisoners of war and citizens brought for forced labor in Germany (Poles, Ukrainians, Latvians, Lithuanians, Estonians, peoples of Yugoslavia, etc.); a significant part of them (over 500 thousand people) after the end of the war were not repatriated by Western authorities and were forced to settle permanently in Great Britain, Germany, France, Belgium and other countries. It should be noted that after the war, population migrations due to economic reasons resumed; they were sent mainly from Italy and Spain to France and partly to Belgium; quite significant groups of immigrants also settled in Sweden and Great Britain. Of great interest is the increased migration of low-skilled workers to Europe from other parts of the world during this period, in particular the migration of Algerian (Muslim) workers from Algeria to France and the migration of blacks whom the population of the Antilles (mostly from Jamaica) to Great Britain.

All countries of Foreign Europe, according to the complexity of their national composition, can be divided into three main groups: 1) single-national, mainly countries with small (less than 10%) groups of national minorities; 2) countries with a significant percentage of representatives of national minorities and multinational countries with a sharp numerical predominance of one nationality; 3) multinational countries in which the largest nationality makes up less than 70% of the total population.

The vast majority of countries in Foreign Europe have a relatively homogeneous National composition. There are few countries that are ethnically complex; national question in them solved differently. In the capitalist countries of Western Europe, national minorities usually do not have the opportunity to develop their language and culture and are doomed to be absorbed into the main nationality of the country; in some countries, such as Franco's Spain, a policy of forced assimilation is pursued. In the people's democracies of Eastern Europe, large national minorities received national-territorial autonomy, where they have all the conditions for economic and cultural development.

Concluding a brief description of the ethnic composition of the population of Europe and the processes of its formation, let us dwell on the religious composition of its population. Europe is the homeland of three main branches of Christianity: Catholicism, widespread mainly in the countries of Southern and Western Europe; Orthodoxy, practiced mainly in the countries of South-Eastern Europe, which were in the past under the influence of Byzantium; Protestantism, widespread in the countries of Central and Northern Europe. Orthodoxy is practiced by the majority of believers Greeks, Bulgarians, Serbs, Macedonians, Montenegrins, Romanians and some Albanians; Catholicism - almost all believers of the Romanesque peoples (Italians, Spaniards, Portuguese, French, etc.), as well as believers of some Slavic peoples (Poles, Czechs, most of Slovaks, Croats, Slovenes) and Germanic peoples (Luxembourgers, Flemings, part of the Germans and Dutch, Austrians), as well as the Irish, part of the Albanians, most of the Hungarians and Basques. The Reformation movement singled out catholic church numerous Protestant churches. Protestants are currently the majority of believing Germans, Franco-Swiss, Dutch, Icelanders, English, Scots, Welsh, Ulsterians, Swedes, Danes, Norwegians and Finns, as well as some Hungarians, Slovaks and German-Swiss. Part of the population of the countries of South-Eastern Europe (Turks, Tatars, Bosnians, most Albanians, part of the Bulgarians and Gypsies) professes Islam. The majority of the Jewish population in Europe professes Judaism.

The religious factor played a significant role in the ethnic history of the countries of Foreign Europe and influenced, in particular, the ethnic division of some peoples (Serbs with Croats, Dutch with Flemings, etc.). At present, in all European countries and especially in the countries of the socialist camp, the number of non-believers is growing rapidly.

Slavic group. Settlement of European peoples.

Living in Zaruezhnaya Europe, the peoples of the Slavic language group defall on the Western and Southern Slavs, on the WesternThe Slavs include the largest Slavic people of Foreign Europe - the Poles (29.6 million), among whose ethnographic groups the Kashubians and Masurians stand out. Poles make up the vast majority of the population in all regions of Poland, except for some eastern regions, where they live together with Ukrainians and Belarusians. Outside Poland, Poles are settled mainly in adjacent regions of the USSR (1.4 million people in total, mainly in the Belarusian and Lithuanian SSR) and Czechoslovakia (Ostrava region). Large groups of Poles who emigrated from Poland in the past,settled in the countries of Western Europe (in France - 350 thousand, Great Britain - 150 thousand, Germany - 80 thousand, etc.). and especially in the countries of America (USA - 3.1 million, Canada - 255 thousand, Argentina, etc.). To the west of the Poles, in the territories of the GDR, in the river basin. Spree, settled Lusatians, or Sorbs -a small nation (120 thousand), living among the German population for a long time and experiencing the strong influence of the German language and culture. To the south of the Poles, in Czechoslovakia, live Czechs (9.1 million people) and related Slovaks (4.0 billion people). Czechs,inhabiting the western half of the country, include a number of ethnographic groups, among which the most famous are the Khods, Poles and Goraks (Gonakhs); Among the Slovaks, the Moravian Slovaks, who are close to the Czechs, stand out, as well as the Vlachs, whose language (occupies an intermediate position between Slovak and Polish languages. IN post-war period large groups of Slovaks moved to the western regions of the Czech Republic, previously occupied by the Germans. Outside the country, significant groups of Slovaks live in Hungary, Czechs and Slovaks in Yugoslavia (Czechs -35 thousand, Slovaks -90 thousand people), Romania and the USSR. In the past, many Czech and Slovak emigrants settled in American countries: the USA (Czechs - 670 thousand, Slovaks - 625 thousand people), Canada, etc.

The southern Slavs include the Bulgarians (6.8 million), who received their name from the ancient Turkic-speaking people who moved to the Western Black Sea region and dissolved among the local Slavic tribes. The Bulgarians, the main nationality of Bulgaria, compactly inhabit its territory, with the exception of small eastern and southern regions, where they live together with the Turks, and the southwestern part of the country, occupied by Macedonians related to the Bulgarians. Among the ethnographic groups of the Bulgarian people, the Pomaks stand out, who adopted in the 16th-17th centuries. Islam and were strongly influenced by Turkish culture, as well as Shoptsi, which preserved many elements of the old traditional Bulgarian culture. Outside of Bulgaria, the most significant groups of Bulgarians live in the USSR (324 thousand people - mainly in the south of Ukraine and Moldova) and in the border areas of Yugoslavia. The Macedonians (‘1.4 million) are very close to the Bulgarians in language and culture - a people that developed on the territory of Macedonia. The Macedonian language occupies an essentially intermediate position between the Bulgarian and Serbo-Croatian languages. The Serbo-Croatian language is spoken by the peoples of Yugoslavia - Serbs (7.8 million), Croats (4.4 million), Bosnians (1.1 million) and Montenegrins (525 thousand). Big role The religious factor played a role in the ethnic division of these four monolingual peoples - the adoption of Orthodoxy by Serbs and Montenegrins, Catholicism by Croats, and Islam by Bosnians. In Yugoslavia, each of these peoples has its own republic, but a significant part of them is settled in stripes (especially within the People's Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina). Outside Yugoslavia, a small number of Serbs live in neighboring areas of Romania and Hungary, and Croats live in Austria (Burgenland). In Hungary there is a population (the so-called Bunyevtsy, Shoktsy, etc.) who speak the Serbo-Croatian language and occupy a sort of intermediate position between the Serbs and Croats; most researchers classify them as Serbs. The main flow of Serbian and Croatian emigrants in the past went to American countries (USA, Argentina, etc.). A somewhat isolated place among the South Slavic peoples is occupied by the Slovenians (1.8 million), who in the past were influenced by German and Italian culture. In addition to Yugoslavia, where Slovenes compactly populate the territory of their autonomous republic (Slovenia), a small part of them lives in Italy (Julian Region) and Austria (Carinthia), where Slovenes are gradually assimilating with the surrounding population - Italians and Austrians.

German group. The largest people of Foreign Europe belong to the Germanic group - the Germans (73.4 million people), whose spoken language shows strong dialectological differences (High German and Low German dialects), and they themselves retain the division into ethnographic groups (Swabians, Bavarians, etc.). The ethnic borders of the German nation now almost exactly coincide with the borders of the GDR and the Federal Republic of Germany; outside their borders there are only scattered, albeit relatively large groups of Germans: in Austria (mainly recent immigrants from Eastern European countries - only 300 thousand), Romania (395 thousand), Hungary (about 200 thousand) and Czechoslovakia (165 thousand), as well as in the eastern regions of the USSR (total 1.6 million). The overseas emigration of Germans led to the formation of large groups of them in the countries of America, especially in the USA (5.5 million), Canada (800 thousand) and Brazil (600 thousand), as well as in Australia (75 thousand). Various dialects of the High German dialect are spoken by Austrians close to Germans in origin (6.9 million), some of whom (South Tyroleans - 200 thousand people) live in the northern regions of Italy, the German-Swiss, as well as those heavily influenced by the French language and culture Alsatians (1.2 million with Lorraineers) and Luxembourgers (318 thousand). A large number of Austrians emigrated to the USA (800 thousand) and other overseas countries.

In the coastal areas of the North Sea live two peoples of similar language and origin - the Dutch (10.9 million) and the Flemings (5.2 million); The Flemish people of Belgium and almost all the Flemish people of France also speak French. A significant number of Dutch and Flemings moved to the United States and Canada. On the North Sea coast, mainly in the Netherlands, live the Frisians (405 thousand) - the remnants of ancient Germanic tribes, strongly assimilated by the Dutch, Danes and Germans.

Northern Europe is inhabited by four peoples of related origin and similar in language: Danes (4.5 million), Swedes (7.6 million), Norwegians (3.5 million) and Icelanders (170 thousand). The ethnic territories of the Danes and Norwegians roughly coincide with the territory of their nation states; As for the Swedes, a fairly large group of them (370 thousand) live in the coastal regions of Western and Southern Finland and on the Åland Islands. A significant number of emigrants from the Nordic countries live in the USA (Swedes - 1.2 million, Norwegians - 900 thousand) and Canada.

The Germanic language group also includes English language, the dialects of which are spoken by three peoples of the British Isles: the English (42.8 million), the Scots (5.0 million) and the Ulsterians (1.0 million). It should be noted that the national identity of the inhabitants of Northern Ireland - the Ulsters, who are for the most part descendants of English and Scottish colonists who mixed with the Irish - is not clearly expressed. All these peoples gave many emigrants to other parts of the world, especially to North America, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand, forming the main ethnic component there “In the formation of new nations - American, Australian, etc. Currently, a large number of English and Scots, recent emigrants are located in Canada (English - 650 thousand, Scots - 250 thousand), USA (English - 650 thousand, Scots - 280 thousand), Australia (English - 500 thousand, Scots - 135 thousand) and countries of Southern Africa (Rhodesia, South Africa, etc.).

The German group usually includes European Jews (1.2 million), most of whom in everyday life use the Yiddish language, which is close to German. Almost all Jews speak the languages ​​of the surrounding population and are closely connected with them economically, politically and culturally. After the events of the Second World War and the emigration of Jews to Palestine (and then to Israel), large groups of Jews remained, as noted above, in Great Britain and France, mainly in large cities. In addition, many Jews who emigrated from European countries in the past live in the USA (5.8 million people), Argentina and other American countries.

Roman group. Largest European people The Romance group is currently Italians (49.5 million), whose ethnic boundaries approximately coincide with the state borders of Italy. Spoken Italian has retained strong dialectological differences. Among the ethnographic groups of the Italian people, the Sicilians and Sardinians stand out especially; Some scientists even consider the language of the latter to be independent. Italy is a country of mass emigration: many Italians live in the industrialized countries of Europe (France - 900 thousand, Belgium - 180 thousand, Switzerland - 140 thousand and up) and especially in the countries of America (mainly in the USA - 5.5 million, Argentina - 1 million, Brazil - 350 thousand, etc.); a small number of them are settled in the countries of North Africa (Tunisia, etc.) - Italian-Swiss (200 thousand) living in southeastern Switzerland speak dialects of the Italian language. (260 thousand) - indigenous people The islands of Corsica speak a language that is essentially a dialect of Italian. In northern Italy and southern Switzerland live Romansh peoples - Friuls, Ladins and Romanchi (400 thousand in total) - the remnants of the ancient Romanized Celtic population, whose language remains very close to ancient Latin. The number of Romansh people is gradually declining due to merging with the larger nations surrounding them (the Friuli and Ladins of Italy - with the Italians; the Ladins and Romans of Switzerland - with the German-Swiss).

The French (39.3 million) are divided by language into northern and southern, or Provencals; the Provençal dialect, which shows a strong affinity to the Italian language, was in the past independent language, and the Tsrovansalians themselves are a separate people. The French compactly populate the territory of France, with the exception of the Brittany Peninsula, where the Bretons are settled, and the eastern departments, where the Alsatians and Lorraine live. Outside France, there are significant French groups in Italy, Belgium and the UK; The French-speaking groups of the Channel Islands, descended from the Normans, represent a special ethnographic group of the French people. Large groups of French settlers are located in African countries (especially in Algeria - 10 million, Morocco - 300 thousand and on Reunion Island) and in the USA (800 thousand in total, a third of them are descendants of French colonists of the 17th century in Louisiana) . Dialects of the French language are also spoken by the Franco-Swiss (1.1 million) living in the western regions of Switzerland, and the Walloons (3.8 million) inhabiting the southern regions of Belgium. Many Franco-Swiss also speak German, and a small number of Walloons speak Flemish.

The extreme west of the Iberian Peninsula is inhabited by the Portuguese (9.1 million) and Galicians close to them in origin (2.4 million), who speak a foreignized dialect of the Portuguese language (the so-called Gallego). Most big people Iberian Peninsula - Spaniards (22.1 million), among whom the division into a number of ethnographic groups remains (Andalusians, Aragonese, Castilians, etc.) and noticeable dialectal differences are observed. Catalans (5.2 million) live in eastern Spain and adjacent areas of France; their language is close to the Provençal dialect of French. Pursuing an assimilationist policy, the Spanish government has forcibly implanted the Spanish language among Catalans and Galicians over the past decades. Large groups of emigrants from Spain and Portugal are located in France, in the countries of America (Argentina, Brazil, etc.) and in their former and still surviving African colonies (Morocco, Angola, etc.).

A special place among the peoples of the Romanesque group is occupied by the Romanians (15.8 million), whose language and culture were strongly influenced by the Slavs. Outside Romania, they are compact (groups of them live in the adjacent regions of Yugoslavia and Hungary, significant groups of them are found in countries of immigration (especially in the USA). Close to the Romanians are the Aromanians (known among neighboring peoples as Vlachs, Tsintsars, etc.), living in mountainous areas of Greece, Macedonia, Serbia and Albania and gradually merging with the surrounding population, the Meglens living in the south of Macedonia are often classified as Aromanians, although they speak a special dialect. The total number of Aromanians is 160 thousand people in the eastern part. parts of the Istrian peninsula (Yugoslavia) live Istro-Romanians - a small nation descended from the ancient Romanized Illyrian population. Currently, the Istro-Romanians have almost completely merged with the Croats.

Celtic grub. The Celtic-speaking peoples, who in the past occupied vast areas of Central and Western Europe, were displaced or assimilated by the Romance and Germanic peoples. Currently, this group includes three peoples of the British Isles - the Irish (4.0 million), the indigenous inhabitants of Wales - the Welsh (1.0 million) and the inhabitants of Northern Scotland - the Gaels (100 thousand), although the bulk of all these peoples use English. The inhabitants of the Isle of Man, who once spoke a special language of the Celtic group, are now completely assimilated by the English. The inhabitants of northwestern France - the Bretons (1.1 million), the majority of whom also speak French - belong to the same group. The Irish language is close to Gaelic, Welsh to Breton. Ireland is a country of mass emigration, size which are so large that they lead to a decrease in the absolute size of its population; many Irish are in Great Britain (1.2 million) and especially in the countries of America (USA - 2.7 million and Canada - 140 thousand). , as noted above, is gradually declining due to their assimilation by the British and Scots, and the number of Bretons - due to their assimilation by the French.

A separate language of the Indo-European family is spoken by Albanians, or Shpetars (2.5 million). Almost half of Albanians live outside Albania - in Yugoslavia (mainly in the autonomous region of Kosovo-Metohya), as well as in southern Italy and Greece, where they gradually merge with the local population. The spoken Albanian language is divided into two main dialects - Gheg and Toisk.

An isolated place is occupied by the Greek language, which is spoken by Greeks (8.0 million), living mainly in Greece and Cyprus, and in small groups in neighboring countries. Greek is also spoken by the Karakachans (about 2 thousand) - a small people who still lead a semi-nomadic lifestyle; Karakachan groups are found in central and southeastern Bulgaria and northern Greece. In the countries of South-Eastern Europe, mainly in Romania, Bulgaria and Czechoslovakia, there are significant groups of gypsies (650 thousand), who still retain their language, which is part of the Indian group, and the characteristics of culture and life; Most Roma also speak the languages ​​of the surrounding population. The number of Roma who were persecuted by the Nazis halved during the Second World War.

Among the peoples who speak other languages language families, include, as noted above, the Hungarians, or Magyars (12.2 million), formed on the basis of the merger of the ancient Slavic population of Central Europe with the nomadic tribes of the Hungarians who came here. Hungarian is a language belonging to Ugric group The Ural family is divided into a number of dialects, among which stands out the dialect of the Szeklers - a geographically and culturally isolated group of the Hungarian people living in Romania in some areas of Transylvania and having their own autonomy there. Significant groups of Hungarians live in countries neighboring Hungary: Romania (1,650 thousand people), Yugoslavia (540 thousand) and Czechoslovakia (415 thousand); there are many Hungarian immigrants in the USA (850 thousand) and Canada.

Two other peoples belonging to the same language family, the Finns, or Suomi (4.2 million), and the Sami, or Loipari (33 thousand), live in the northern part of Europe and are territorially separated from the Hungarians. Finns inhabit the territory of Finland; small groups of them, known as Kvens, are settled in the central and eastern regions of Sweden; In addition, the emigration of Finnish workers to Sweden has increased greatly in recent years, USA and Canada. The Sami are a small people, descendants of the ancient population of Scandinavia, pushed into the northern and mountainous regions of Sweden, Norway and Finland; significant groups of them live on the Kola Peninsula in the CGCP. Most of the Sami are engaged in reindeer herding, maintaining a nomadic lifestyle, the rest are sedentary fishermen.

In the northern part of the Iberian Peninsula - in Spain and partly in France - live the Basques (830 thousand) - descendants of the most ancient population of the peninsula (Iberian tribes), whose language occupies a separate place in the linguistic classification system. Many Basques in Spain also speak Spanish, and many Basques in France speak French.

The Maltese (300 thousand) live on the islands of Malta and Gozo, formed as a result of a complex mixture of various ethnic components. The Maltese speak a dialect Arabic, with a large number of borrowings from Italian. During the post-war years, emigration of Maltese to the UK and the USA increased greatly.

Countries of Foreign Europe in demographic terms nia have been studied quite well, since almost all of them are studied; regular population censuses are carried out,Moreover, the latter happened quite recently - after the end of the Second World War. In ethnostatistical terms, the level of knowledge about the countries of Foreign Europe is far from uniform. The most reliable ethnostatistical materials are available for the countries of South-Eastern Europe, the least reliable - for the countries of Western Europe. In many countries, census programs do not include national composition among their tasks at all or severely limit this task.

Countries whose post-war population censuses make it possible to directly determine their ethnic composition include: Bulgaria (censuses of December 3, 1946 and December 1, 1956 - question about nationality), Romania (census of January 25, 1948 - question about native language, census February 21, 1956 - question about nationality and native language), Yugoslavia (census March 15, 1948 - question about nationality, census March 31, 1953 - question about nationality and native language), Czechoslovakia (census March 1 1950 - the question of nationality). However, it should be noted that the latest census data from Romania and Czechoslovakia have not yet been fully published, and this makes it difficult to determine the size of some national minorities in these countries. It is also known that in Albania in 1945 and 1955. Population censuses have been conducted, the program of which included the question of nationality, but there are no official materials from these censuses yet. Thus, it turns out that reliable ethnostatistical materials cover less than 15% of the population of the countries of Foreign Europe.

Less opportunity for an accurate determination of the national composition of the population is provided by census materials of those countries where the language of the population is taken into account. These countries include: Austria (census 1 June 1951 - mother tongue), Belgium (census 31 December 1947 - knowledge of the main languages ​​of the country and the main spoken language), Hungary (1 January 1949 - language), Greece (census 7 April 1951 - mother tongue), Finland (census 31 December 1950 - spoken language), Switzerland (census 1 December 1950 - spoken language) and Liechtenstein (census 31 December 1950 - language) . National affiliation, as is known, does not always coincide with linguistic affiliation, and this fact is especially characteristic of Europe, where many peoples speak the same language (for example, German - Germans, Austrians, German-Swiss, etc.) . Note that relatively more reliable results can be obtained if censuses ask a question about native language, but in Austria and Greece, where censuses used such a question, the concept native language was essentially under replaced by the concept of the main spoken language. Due to the strong linguistic assimilation of national minorities (the use of language as an ethnic determinant leads to an understatement of their number and to an exaggeration of the number of the main nationality of the country. In this regard, using census materials that took into account the language (native or spoken), it was necessary in each special case establish a connection between this indicator and the nationality of the population (both in relation to the local population and in relation to people from other countries) and correct these materials based on other literary and statistical sources. Speaking about the materials of language statistics, it is impossible not to mention that in 1946 a census was also carried out on the territory of Germany (in Soviet and Western wons) taking into account the native language, but its data covered the masses of refugees and displaced persons who were later repatriated or left Germany to other countries are now obsolete.

Subsequent censuses of the GDR and West Germany, as well as post-war censuses of the rest of Europe, which include Great Britain (census of April 8, 1951), Denmark (census of October 1, 1950), Ireland (census of April 12, 1946 and 8 April 1956), Iceland (census 1 December 1950), Spain (census 31 December 1950), Italy (census 4 November 1951), Luxembourg (census 31 December 1947), Netherlands (census 31 May 1947), Norway (census 1 December 1950), Poland (census 3 December 1950), Portugal (census 15 December 1950), France (census 10 March 1946 and 10 May 1954), Sweden (census 31 December 1950), Malta (census 14 June1948), Andorra, Vatican City, Gibraltar and San Marino, did not aim to determine the national or linguistic composition of the population. The term “nationality” (“nationalite”), used in the qualifications of many countries (Great Britain, France, etc.), is not adequate to the Russian term “nationality” and has a special interpretation that differs from that accepted in the USSR and most countries of Eastern Europe; it corresponds, as a rule, to the concept of citizenship or nationality. The materials of qualifications of such countries contain information only on the number of citizens of their state and the number of foreigners, usually with a breakdown of the latter by country of origin.

It should be pointed out that the accuracy of determining the number of individual peoples living in the countries mentioned above, due to the heterogeneity of their population census materials and auxiliary materials that to some extent replace census data, is not the same. For example, establishing the number of Celtic-speaking peoples of Great Britain - the Welsh - was made easier by the fact that the census program for Scotland and Wales has long included a question about knowledge of Welsh or Gaelic (for persons over three years of age). The same applies to France, where in the territory of Alsace-Lorraine knowledge of local dialects of the German language is taken into account. Many European states have a relatively homogeneous national composition, and therefore the number of the main nationalities of these countries could be obtained with sufficient accuracy for our purposes by excluding small groups of national minorities, the number of which was determined from auxiliary materials, mainly from data on citizenship or from the works of ethnographic and linguistic nature. Of significant value for determining the national composition of some countries (Italy, France) are the materials of old population censuses, conducted before the start of the Second World War and taking into account the linguistic composition of the population, however, changes in state borders and population migration from country to country should be taken into account.

Particularly serious difficulties arise when determining the national composition of those countries where the ethnic heterogeneity of the indigenous population is complemented by a large number of foreigners (France - over 1,500 thousand, Great Britain - over 500 thousand, etc.). Although the countries from which these individuals came are in most cases known, their nationality can only be determined with great approximation. Ethnicity, as is known, is not related to citizenship, and, in addition, the very composition of foreigners is quite variable, both due to their natural “fluidity” (i.e., the return of some groups to their homeland and the arrival of others), and due to naturalization (acceptance of citizenship new country of residence) parts of them, after which they are not usually identified in population censuses. To clarify the number of immigrants from other countries, official census data had to be supplemented with statistical materials on the naturalization of foreigners, however, even in this case, the determination of nationality is very difficult. complex problems. Above, we noted the presence of assimilation processes among the indigenous population of the countries of Foreign Europe, but such processes are especially characteristic of foreigners. Persons who moved for one reason or another to a foreign environment, having lost ties with their people, received new citizenship, etc., over time ethnically merge with the surrounding population. These extremely complex processes in many cases, and especially where the only evidence of them is data on the adoption of new citizenship, cannot be revealed in all details.

In addition to data on nationality, language, citizenship (country of origin) and naturalization, in some cases we also used data on religious affiliation. This applies, first of all, to determining the size of the Jewish population in countries that cannot be distinguished by other criteria, as well as to determining the national composition of Northern Ireland (the distinction between the Irish and Ulsterians).

When determining the number of peoples for 1959, we proceeded from the general dynamics of the population of the countries in which they lived, taking into account differences in the natural movement of individual peoples, the participation of these peoples in migration, and especially the development of ethnic processes.

Summarizing some results of the above, we note that the national composition of many countries of Foreign Europe was determined for 1959 with a certain approximation.

Europe is inhabited by people who are culturally and ethnic composition nation. Conducted research on this moment installed in Europe eighty-seven various peoples. Thirty-three of them are major in their respective states. Fifty-four peoples constitute ethnic minorities in their states of residence. The number of national minorities is estimated at one hundred and six million people throughout Europe. The total population of Europe is estimated at ~827 million people. Eight nations of Europe have a population of over 30 million. Among them: Russians(130 million); (82 million); (65 million); British(58 million); Italians(59 million); (46 million); Ukrainians(45 million); Poles(47 million). Several groups of Jews also live in Europe: Ashkenazi, Sephardi, Mizrahim, Rominiots, Karaites. Only about two million. Even in Europe there live the so-called “ordinary” gypsies numbering up to five million and “white gypsies” - Yenishi- no more than two and a half thousand people.

From the history

Origin of peoples

Almost all of the current states of Europe were formed on the lands of the once former Roman Empire. Its territory included vast spaces from the west, where Germanic tribes ruled, to the Gallic lands conquered in the east, from the villages of Britain in the north to the southern cities northern Africa. In such conditions, time and history formed a unique diversity modern population Europe. Its cultural and religious space. The main influence on it was the resettlement of Germanic tribes that took place in the 4th-5th centuries, which led them to protracted wars with the Roman Empire and its fall. After which the tribes founded their barbarian states on its lands.

IN XII-XIII centuries the peoples of Europe began to develop their literary languages, those with each passing year increasingly determined their belonging to their national identity. In England, the Canterbury Tales by the writer D. Chaucer can easily be called an example of the foundation stone for an ethnic culture. With them he established the core of the national English language. The 15th-16th centuries were the time of the rooting of monarchies, the formation of the main governing bodies of states, the laying out of new paths for economic development and the revelation of the cultural characteristics of each people of Europe.

Geographical factor

The geographical factor determined the diversity of traditions. The peoples living on the coast cherished holidays associated with the sea: dances, songs, rituals, painting, crafts. The peoples located among forests and steppes paid attention in their traditions and culture to the nature that surrounded them.

Middle Ages

In the Middle Ages, another powerful wave of migration and wars swept across the European continent, and borders were again redrawn. Then I changed again social structure population. Within its framework, the peoples of Europe established themselves approximately in the composition in which they exist today. XVII-XVIII centuries is the time difficult trials traditions of the peoples of Europe, which were tested for strength by revolutions. In addition, states fought for dominance on the mainland. The 16th century was marked by the leadership of the Austrian and Spanish Habsburgs. Then their power was replaced by the dominant position of France, which established absolutism. The 18th century brought weakness and instability to Europe with revolutions, wars and internal political crisis.

Colonialism

The other two centuries reshaped the geopolitical situation in Western Europe. The reason for this was the doctrine of colonialism. The Spaniards, English, Dutch and French expanded into the North and South America, Africa, Asia. This greatly changed the cultural appearance of European states. Great Britain was especially successful in expansion, acquiring a colonial empire that stretched almost half the world. As a result, the English language and English diplomacy began to dominate the course European development. Alas, this did not at all save the European continent from a new redistribution of the geopolitical map. The means to this were two world wars. Many peoples living in Europe at that time found themselves facing total destruction. Hunger, devastation, political terror, disease and brutal battles brought tens of millions of representatives of large nations and thousands of people from small nations to the grave. The largest number of deaths occurred among Russians, Jews, Germans, French, Gypsies... Subsequently, European states began to strive for globalization and the development of common governing bodies. With the participation of the USSR and the USA, the UN institution and UN Security Council mechanisms were created to prevent world conflicts.

Culture of the peoples of Europe

Among the religions professed by the peoples of Europe, large groups stand out: Catholicism, Protestantism and Orthodoxy, as well as the growing Islam. Catholicism and its offshoots, namely Protestantism, Lutheranism, Calvinism, the Anglican Church, Puritanism and others, dominate in Western European countries. Orthodoxy dominates in the countries of Eastern Europe, where it once came from Byzantium. It was also borrowed from it into Rus'.

The languages ​​of the peoples of Europe consist of three main groups: Romanesque, Germanic And Slavic.

It is extremely difficult to fully list the composition of the peoples of Europe due to rapid migration processes. You can indicate large nations: Germans, Spaniards, Italians, Portuguese, French, Romanians, Scandinavian ethnic groups, Slavic peoples (Russians, Serbs, Belarusians, Ukrainians, Bulgarians, Poles, Croats, Slovenes, Czechs, Slovaks...), there is also an eastern ethnic group ( Turks, Arabs, Albanians, Armenians, Iranians, Afghans...).

Nowadays, the intensive penetration of the Internet and information technology into all spheres of life is accelerating the disappearance of national borders in Europe. Under the pressure of new migration flows from zones of local wars in the Middle East and Africa, cultural differences between the indigenous inhabitants of the countries receiving migrants are also being erased. IN last years Among the titular nations of Europe, there has been a tendency to resist globalization, and the processes of defending the national interests and identity of countries are intensifying.

There are 58 nations in Western Europe. 96% of the population speaks a language of the Indo-European family. The most significant of this family (by number of peoples) are the Germanic group, the Romanesque group, Slavic group and etc.

Anthropological composition: Caucasian racial type.

Greeks: the beginning of this ethnic group on the lands of modern Greece. In the 8th-5th centuries. BC. a common ethnic name was established - Hellenes, homeland - Hellas. The main occupations are growing grapes, olives, almonds, transhumance sheep and goat breeding, pottery and carpet weaving. Houses made of untreated stone (1st and 2nd floors), where livestock live. Men's folk costume: black or blue trousers, white shirt, vest, sash, fez, cloak; for women - a long white shirt of a tunic cut with wide long sleeves, a wide long skirt.

Albanians. They come from the ancient population of the Balkans - the Illyrians (Thracians). In the 4th century BC. the first state formations. Main occupations: transhumance, farming (cereals - barley, rye; in the mountains - oats, wheat; in the valleys - millet; potatoes, corn, cotton, sugar beets are also grown). There are three types of rural settlements: scattered, crowded and regular. Usually 2-story houses with a veranda. More than 2/3 are Muslims, about a quarter are Orthodox.

Roman group. 15 nations (Italians, Italian-Swiss, Corsicans, Spaniards, Portuguese, French, Romanians, etc.). The Romans subjugated and assimilated many peoples, Romanization continued until the 5th century. AD The traditional occupations of Italians are gardening, grain farming, and animal husbandry. Food – pasta, a lot of spices and seasonings. More than half of the population lives in cities, rural settlements of 3 types: villages, hamlets, fortresses. Costume: men's - trousers, kamicha (tunic-like shirt), jakka (jacket), hat or beret; female - gona (long skirt), kamicha, corsetto, jacket ( outerwear), fazzoletto (head scarf), wooden shoes with iron spikes. The majority of believers are Catholics. Traditional occupations of the French: animal husbandry, field farming, viticulture. The main crops are rice, corn, rye. Food: cheese, rabbit meat, poultry (pigeons in the south), vegetables, root vegetables. Rural settlements are of 2 types: street plan (row) and cumulus. This is a 1-story house with a roof, residential and utility premises. Men's suit: pants, shirt, vest, neckerchief, straw hat. The believers are mostly Catholics. Walloons(40% of the Belgian population) are a craft people. Large villages of street and cumulus type. Peoples of the Iberian Peninsula: Spain ranks 1st in olive oil production. Grain farming has been developed. Already in the Roman era, cattle were bred; fishing has very ancient origins. Woman suit: wide pleated skirt with an apron, light blouse, bodice, scarf on the head. Catholics.

German group– 17 nations. They speak languages ​​of the Germanic group (Germans, Austrians, German-Swiss, Luxembourgians, Lorraineers, Danes, Swedes, Dutch, Norwegians, English, Scots, etc.). The traditional occupation is livestock raising (cattle) - transhumance, farming. Traditional settlements: large cumulus villages with haphazardly located houses and crooked streets. Clothing: men's - shirt (consists of two panels), long trousers, shoes were leather soles with leather straps; women's - a shirt also made of two panels, a cloak with a hood. Crafts – knitting, carpet weaving, weaving, embroidery.

Celtic group. 4 peoples - Irish, Welsh, Gaels, Bretons. Traditional occupations are agriculture and cattle breeding. They grow barley, oats, and wheat. Livestock (cattle) plays a major role. Food – cereals, fish, dairy dishes, soups. One of the oldest cities is Dublin. Rural settlements of the farm type. The houses are stone and wicker. Traditional costume: black clothes for older women; young people have a long wide skirt and corset, a long white apron and a white lace cap; male - tight short pants, jacket with a closed collar, hat. Mostly Catholics.