Liberal reforms of the 60s and 70s of the 19th century

Liberal democratic reforms of the 60-70s of the 19th century

The first measure to implement the new course was the adoption of the Regulations on Enhanced and Emergency Protection (1881), which was already mentioned above. In addition to it in 1892 ᴦ. A law on martial law is adopted, regulating the powers of military authorities in the front line in war conditions. Moreover, this law provided for the possibility of declaring martial law in peacetime in the event of mass unrest. Power in areas declared under martial law was transferred to the military command, and civilians were subject to the jurisdiction of military courts.

Counter-reforms of the 80-90s of the 19th century.

In relation to the peasantry (along with the end of the temporarily obliged state, the reduction of redemption payments, the replacement of the poll tax with a land tax and the abolition of the salt tax), a line was pursued to strengthen patriarchal principles in peasant family. Law 1886 ᴦ. established that family division (allocation of adult children) required the consent of the head of the family and a decision of the village meeting, adopted by a qualified majority of 2/3 votes.

The next step was the establishment in 1889. Institute of Zemstvo District Chiefs. Each county was divided into sections to which district zemstvo chiefs were appointed from local hereditary nobles who had land holdings and higher or secondary education in the given county. The zemstvo chief concentrated in his hands strict control over peasant communities, administrative and judicial powers. Justices of the peace were abolished in the counties where zemstvo chiefs were appointed. This was an attempt to revive the class authorities of the hereditary nobility.

The regulations on zemstvo and city self-government bodies were revised. According to the law of 1890 ᴦ. changes in zemstvo self-government boiled down to the following: in elections to district zemstvo assemblies, the system of curiae was preserved, but in the first curia, not all landowners were now elected, but only nobles, ᴛ.ᴇ. the class principle was applied. The peasants elected only electors, from among whom the governors appointed deputies to the zemstvo assembly.

Government control over zemstvos was sharply strengthened. For this purpose, special institutions were created in the provinces - provincial offices for zemstvo affairs - from among officials and all district leaders of the nobility, chaired by the governor.

According to the law of 1892 ᴦ. The procedure for elections to city councils was also changed. Only owners were allowed to vote real estate in capitals costing at least 3 thousand rubles, in provincial cities- 1.5 thousand rubles, in other cities - 1 thousand rubles. Only nobles, big bourgeois and some part of the middle bourgeoisie now participated in the elections. The number of voters dropped sharply. So, if there were 20 thousand voters in Moscow, then after 1892. there are only 7 thousand of them left. The intervention of governors in city affairs increased.

Counter-reforms were carried out no less decisively in the education system. According to the charter of 1884 ᴦ. University autonomy was liquidated. The positions of rectors, deans, and professors again began to be filled not by choice, but by appointment. Universities were made completely dependent on the Minister of Education and the trustees of educational districts. In 1887 ᴦ. the admission rules were changed: applicants had to be vouched for their respectable, from the government’s point of view, “way of thinking” high school. At the same time, tuition fees increased 5 times. In the same 1887 ᴦ. followed by the famous ministerial circular about “cook’s children.” He denied access to the gymnasium to the children of coachmen, footmen, cooks, laundresses, small shopkeepers, etc. All these measures were aimed at reviving class in education.

A decisive blow was dealt to women's higher education. Admission to higher women's courses was stopped. It resumed only in the very late XIX century. The church's control over the content of education (including higher education) has increased.

In 1882 ᴦ. new Temporary Rules on the Press were introduced, which actually restored preliminary censorship for periodicals. Administrative measures were intensified against “obstinate” publications: they were stifled with fines and confiscation of circulation. To encourage and “feed” pro-government publications, a special fund was formed in the Main Directorate for Press Affairs, nicknamed “reptilian”.

The school, church, and censorship actively implemented the official slogan:<<Православие, самодержавие, народность”, выдвинутый еще в царствование Николая 1 тогдашним министром просвещения графом С.С. Уваровым

The abolition of serfdom posed new serious problems for the authorities. For centuries, the serf system determined in Russia the organization of the system of administration and legal proceedings, the principles of recruiting the army, etc.
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The collapse of this system dictated the extreme importance of further reforms. Zemstvo reform 1864. January 1, 1864 ᴦ. The law on zemstvo self-government was approved. It was established for the management of households. affairs: construction and maintenance of local roads, schools, hospitals, almshouses, for organizing food assistance to the population in lean years, for agronomic assistance and collecting statistical information. The administrative bodies of the zemstvo were the provincial and district zemstvo assemblies, and the executive bodies were the district and provincial zemstvo councils. To carry out their tasks, zemstvos received the right to impose a special tax on the population. Elections of zemstvo bodies were held every three years. In each district, a district zemstvo assembly was created for the election of councilors. three electoral congresses. The first congress was attended by landowners, regardless of class, who had at least 200-800 acres of land (land qualifications were different in different counties). The second congress included city property owners with a certain property qualification. The third, peasant congress, brought together elected officials from the volost assemblies. Each of the congresses elected a certain number of vowels. District zemstvo assemblies elected members of the provincial zemstvo. Zemstvos played a big positive role in improving the life of the Russian village and in the development of education. Soon after their creation, Russia was covered with a network of zemstvo schools and hospitals. With the advent of the zemstvo, the balance of power in the Russian province began to change. Previously, all affairs in the districts were carried out by government officials together with the landowners. Judicial reform : 1864 - New judicial statutes promulgated. Provisions:

the class system of courts was abolished; equality of all before the law was declared; openness of legal proceedings was introduced; adversarial legal proceedings; presumption of innocence; irremovability of judges; unified judicial system

Two types of courts have been created: 1. Magistrates' courts - considered minor civil cases, the damage for which did not exceed 500 rubles. Judges were elected at district assemblies and confirmed by the Senate. 2. There were 3 types of general courts: Criminal and grave - in district court. Particularly important state and political crimes were considered in judicial chamber. The highest court became Senate. Judges for general courts were appointed by the tsar, and jurors were chosen at provincial meetings.

Flaws: Small estate courts continued to exist - for peasants. For political processes, a Special Presence of the Senate was created, closed meetings were held, which violated the attack of openness.

Urban reform 1870 ᴦ. It replaced the former class dumas, created in accordance with the “Charter of Grant to Cities” of 1785, with all-class elected city institutions - city dumas and city councils. The right to elect to the city council was enjoyed by persons who had reached 25 years of age and paid city taxes. All voters, in accordance with the amount of taxes paid to the city, were divided into three curiae. The first curia was made up of a small group of the largest owners of real estate, industrial and commercial enterprises, who paid 1/3 of all taxes to the city treasury. The second curia included smaller taxpayers, who contributed another 1/3 of city taxes. The third curia consisted of all other taxpayers. Moreover, each curia elected an equal number of members to the city duma, which ensured the predominance of representatives of the large financial, commercial and industrial bourgeoisie. The city public self-government was in charge of household decisions. issues: improvement of the city, development of local trade, industry, health care and public education, maintenance of the police, prisons, etc. The activities of city government were controlled by the state. The mayor elected by the City Duma was approved by the governor or the Minister of Internal Affairs. These same officials could impose a ban on any decision of the Duma. To control the activities of city government in each province, a special body was created - the provincial presence for city affairs. It, like the zemstvo reform, contributed to the involvement of broad sections of the population in solving management issues, which served as a prerequisite for the formation of civil society and the rule of law in Russia.

Military reform: 1874 - Charter on military service on all-class military service for men over 20 years of age. The period of active service was established in the ground forces - 6 years, in the navy - 7 years. Recruitment was abolished. The duration of active military service was determined by educational qualifications. Persons with higher education served for 0.5 years. To increase the competence of senior military leadership, the Ministry of War was transformed into General Staff The whole country was divided into 6 military districts. The army was reduced, military settlements were liquidated. In the 60s, the rearmament of the army began: replacing smooth-bore weapons with rifled ones, introducing steel artillery pieces, improving the horse park, and developing a military steam fleet. Military gymnasiums, cadet schools and academies were created to train officers. All this made it possible to reduce the size of the army in peacetime and at the same time increase its combat effectiveness.

They were exempt from military service if there was 1 child in the family, if they had 2 children, or if they had elderly parents to support them. Cane discipline was abolished. The humanization of relations in the army has taken place.

School reform 1864 democratized the sphere of primary and secondary education, expanded the network of educational institutions, and attracted new teaching forces. Press reform(1865). Censorship of books and periodicals was significantly relaxed and limited. The press received ample opportunity to discuss political and social issues.

Liberal democratic reforms of the 60-70s of the 19th century - concept and types. Classification and features of the category “Liberal democratic reforms of the 60-70s of the 19th century” 2017, 2018.

World historical theory

Materialist historians(I.A. Fedosov and others) define the period of abolition of serfdom as a sharp transition from a feudal socio-economic formation to a capitalist one. They believe that the abolition of serfdom in Russia late, and the reforms that followed it were carried out slowly and incompletely. Half-heartedness in carrying out reforms caused indignation among the advanced part of society- the intelligentsia, which then resulted in terror against the tsar. Marxist revolutionaries believed that the country was “led” down the wrong path of development- “slowly cutting off the rotting parts”, but it was necessary to “lead” along the path of a radical solution to problems - carrying out the confiscation and nationalization of landowners’ lands, the destruction of the autocracy, etc.

Liberal historians contemporaries of the events, V.O. Klyuchevsky (1841-1911), S.F. Platonov (1860-1933) and others, welcomed both the abolition of serfdom and subsequent reforms. Defeat in the Crimean War, they believed, revealed Russia's technical lag behind attack and undermined the country's international prestige.

Later liberal historians ( I. N. Ionov, R. Pipes, etc.) began to note that in in the middle of the nineteenth century, serfdom reached its highest point of economic efficiency. The reasons for the abolition of serfdom are political. Russia's defeat in the Crimean War dispelled the myth of the military power of the Empire, caused irritation in society and a threat to the stability of the country. The interpretation focuses on the cost of reform. Thus, the people were not historically prepared for drastic socio-economic changes and “painfully” accepted the changes in their lives. The government did not have the right to abolish serfdom and carry out reforms without comprehensive socio-moral training of the entire people, especially nobles and peasants. According to liberals, the centuries-old way of Russian life cannot be changed by force.

ON THE. Nekrasov in his poem “Who Lives Well in Rus'” writes:

The great chain has broken,

tore and hit:

one end on the master,

others - man!...

Historians of the technological direction (V. A. Krasilshchikov, S. A. Nefedov, etc.) believe that the abolition of serfdom and subsequent reforms are due to the stage of Russia’s modernization transition from a traditional (agrarian) society to an industrial one. The transition from traditional to industrial society in Russia was carried out by the state during the period of influence from the 17th-18th centuries. European cultural and technological circle (modernization - Westernization) and took the form of Europeanization, that is, a conscious change in traditional national forms according to the European model.

“Machine progress in Western Europe, tsarism “forced” actively to impose industrial order. And this determined the specifics of modernization in Russia. The Russian state, selectively borrowing technical and organizational elements from the West, simultaneously preserved traditional structures. As a result, the country has developed situation of “overlapping historical eras” ”(industrial - agrarian), which later led to social.

shocks Industrial society, introduced by the state at the expense of the peasants,

came into sharp conflict with all the fundamental conditions of Russian life and should inevitably give rise to protest both against the autocracy, which did not give the desired freedom to the peasant, and against the private owner, a figure previously alien to Russian life. The industrial workers who appeared in Russia as a result of industrial development inherited the hatred of the entire Russian peasantry with its centuries-old communal psychology towards private property. Tsarism

Local historical theory.

The theory is represented by the works of Slavophiles and Narodniks. Historians believed that Russia, unlike Western countries, follows its own special path of development. They justified the possibility in Russia of a non-capitalist path of development to socialism through the peasant community.

Reforms of Alexander II

Land reform. The main question in Russia during the 18th-19th centuries there was a land-peasant system. Catherine II raised this question in the work of the Free Economic Society, which reviewed several dozen programs for the abolition of serfdom by both Russian and foreign authors. Alexander I issued a decree “On Free Plowmen,” which allowed landowners to free their peasants from serfdom along with the land for a ransom. Nicholas I During the years of his reign, he created 11 secret committees on the peasant issue, whose task was to abolish serfdom and resolve the land issue in Russia.

In 1857, by decree of Alexander II started to work secret committee on the peasant question, whose main task was the abolition of serfdom with the mandatory allocation of land to peasants. Then such committees were created in the provinces. As a result of their work (and the wishes and orders of both landowners and peasants were taken into account) there was a reform has been developed to abolish serfdom for all regions of the country, taking into account local specifics. For different areas there were the maximum and minimum values ​​of the allotment transferred to the peasant are determined.

Emperor On February 19, 1861, he signed a number of laws. Was here Manifesto and Regulations on the granting of freedom to the peasants us, documents on the entry into force of the Regulations, on the management of rural communities, etc.

Abolition of serfdom was not a one-time event. First, landowner peasants were freed, then appanage peasants and those assigned to factories. Peasants received personal freedom, but the land remained the property of the landowners, and while plots were allocated, peasants were in the position of “temporarily obligated” bore duties in favor of the landowners, which were essentially no different from the previous serfs. The plots transferred to the peasants were on average 1/5 smaller than those they had previously cultivated. To these lands buyout agreements were concluded, after this, the “temporarily obligated” state ceased, the treasury paid for the land with the landowners, the peasants - with the treasury for 49 years at the rate of 6% per annum (redemption payments).

Use of land and relationships with authorities were built through the community. It was preserved as a guarantor of peasant payments. The peasants were attached to society (the world).

As a result of reforms serfdom was abolished- that “obvious and palpable evil”, which in Europe was directly called “ Russian slavery." However, the land problem was not solved, since the peasants, when dividing the land, were forced to give the landowners a fifth of their plots.

At the beginning of the twentieth century, the first Russian revolution broke out in Russia, a peasant revolution largely in terms of the composition of the driving forces and the tasks that faced it. This is what made P.A. Stolypin to implement land reform, allowing peasants to leave the community. The essence of the reform was to resolve the land issue, but not through the confiscation of land from the landowners, as the peasants demanded, but through the redistribution of the land of the peasants themselves.

Liberal reforms of the 60-70s

Zemstvo and city reforms. The principle of 1864. zemstvo reform consisted of election and classlessness. In the provinces and districts of Central Russia and part of Ukraine zemstvos were established as local government bodies. Elections to zemstvo assemblies were carried out on the basis of property, age, education and a number of other qualifications. Women and employees were deprived of the right to participate in elections. This gave an advantage to the wealthiest segments of the population. The meetings elected zemstvo councils. Zemstvos were in charge affairs of local importance, promoted entrepreneurship, education, healthcare - carried out work for which the state did not have the funds.

Conducted in 1870 urban reform in character she was close to the zemstvo. In major cities city ​​councils were established on the basis of all-estate elections. However, elections were held on a licensing basis, and, for example, in Moscow only 4% of the adult population participated in them. The city councils and the mayor decided internal self-government issues, education and health care. For control for zemstvo and city activities it was created presence on city affairs.

Judicial reform. New judicial statutes were approved on November 20, 1864. The judicial power was separated from the executive and legislative. A classless and public court was introduced, and the principle of irremovability of judges was established. Two types of court were introduced - general (crown) and magistrate. The general court was in charge of criminal cases. The trial became open, although in a number of cases cases were heard behind closed doors. An adversarial court was established, the positions of investigators were introduced, and the legal profession was established. The question of the defendant’s guilt was decided by 12 jurors. The most important principle of the reform was the recognition of the equality of all subjects of the empire before the law.

For the analysis of civil cases it was introduced Institute of Magistrates. Appeal the authority for the courts was court cases You. The position was introduced notary. Since 1872, major political cases were considered in Special presence of the governing Senate, which simultaneously became the highest court of cassation.

Military reform. After his appointment in 1861, D.A. Milyutin, Minister of War, begins the reorganization of the management of the armed forces. In 1864, 15 military districts were formed, subordinate directly to the Minister of War. In 1867, a military judicial charter was adopted. In 1874, after a long discussion, the tsar approved the Charter on universal military service. A flexible recruitment system was introduced. Recruitment sets were cancelled, and the entire male population over the age of 21 was subject to conscription. The service life was reduced in the army to 6 years, in the navy to 7 years. Clergymen, members of a number of religious sects, the peoples of Kazakhstan and Central Asia, as well as some peoples of the Caucasus and the Far North were not subject to conscription into the army. The only son, the only breadwinner in the family, was exempt from service. In peacetime, the need for soldiers was significantly less than the number of conscripts, so everyone fit for service, with the exception of those who received benefits, drew lots. For those who graduated from primary school, service was reduced to 3 years, for those who graduated from high school - to 1.5 years, and from university or institute - to 6 months.

Financial reform. In 1860 there was State Bank established, happened abolition of the tax-farm 2 system, which was replaced by excise taxes 3(1863). Since 1862 The only responsible manager of budget revenues and expenses was the Minister of Finance; the budget became public. Was done attempt at monetary reform(free exchange of credit notes for gold and silver at the established rate).

Educational reforms. “Regulations on primary public schools” dated June 14, 1864 eliminated the state-church monopoly on education. Now both public institutions and private ones were allowed to open and maintain primary schools persons under control by district and provincial school councils and inspectors. The charter of the secondary school introduced the principle of equality of all classes and religions y, but entered tuition fees.

Gymnasiums were divided into classical and real new In classical gymnasiums, mainly humanities were taught, in real ones - natural subjects. After the resignation of the Minister of Public Education A.V. Golovnin (in 1861 D.A. Tolstoy was appointed instead) was accepted new gymnasium regulations, retaining only classical gymnasiums, real gymnasiums were replaced by real schools. Along with male secondary education a system of women's gymnasiums appeared.

University Us tav (1863) provided universities had broad autonomy, elections of rectors and professors were introduced. Management of the educational institution was transferred to the Council of the Trade Union Essor, to whom the students were subordinate. Were universities were opened in Odessa and Tomsk, higher courses for women in St. Petersburg, Kyiv, Moscow, Kazan.

As a result of the publication of a number of laws in Russia there was a coherent education system was created, which included primary, secondary and higher educational institutions.

Censorship reform. In May 1862 censorship reform began, were introduced "temporary rules”, which in 1865 were replaced by a new censorship charter. According to the new charter, preliminary censorship was abolished for books of 10 or more printed pages (240 pages); editors and publishers could only be held accountable in court. With special permissions and upon payment of a deposit of several thousand rubles, periodicals were also exempt from censorship, but they could be suspended administratively. Only government and scientific publications, as well as literature translated from a foreign language, could be published without censorship.

The preparation and implementation of reforms were an important factor in the socio-economic development of the country. Administratively, the reforms were quite well prepared, but public opinion did not always keep up with the ideas of the reformer tsar. The diversity and speed of transformations gave rise to a feeling of uncertainty and confusion in thoughts. People lost their bearings, organizations professing extremist, sectarian principles appeared.

For economy Post-reform Russia is characterized by rapid development commodity-money relations. Celebrated growth of sown areas and agricultural production, but agricultural productivity remained low. Harvests and food consumption (except bread) were 2-4 times lower than in Western Europe. At the same time in the 80s. compared to the 50s. The average annual grain harvest increased by 38%, and its export increased by 4.6 times.

The development of commodity-money relations led to property differentiation in the countryside, middle peasant farms went bankrupt, and the number of poor people grew. On the other side, strong kulak farms appeared, some of which used agricultural machines. All this was part of the plans of the reformers. But completely unexpectedly for them in the country the traditionally hostile attitude towards trade has intensified That is, to all new forms of activity: to a kulak, a merchant, a buyer - to a successful entrepreneur.

In Russia large industry was created and developed as a state-owned. The government's main concern after the failures of the Crimean War was enterprises producing military equipment. Russia's military budget in general terms was inferior to that of England, France, and Germany, but in the Russian budget it had a greater weight. Particular attention was paid to development of heavy industry and transport. It was in these areas that the government directed funds, both Russian and foreign.

The growth of entrepreneurship was controlled by the state based on the issuance of special orders, That's why the big bourgeoisie was closely associated with the state. Fast the number of industrial workers increased, however, many workers retained economic and psychological ties to the village; they carried within them the charge of discontent of the poor who had lost their land and were forced to seek food in the city.

The reforms laid the foundation new credit system. For 1866-1875 was 359 joint-stock commercial banks, mutual credit societies and other financial institutions were created. Since 1866 they began to actively participate in their work largest European banks. As a result of government regulation, foreign loans and investments went mainly to railway construction. Railways ensured the expansion of the economic market across the vast expanses of Russia; they were also important for the rapid transfer of military units.

In the second half of the 19th century, the political situation in the country changed several times.

During the period of preparation of the reforms, from 1855 to 1861, the government retained the initiative of action and attracted all supporters of the reforms - from the highest bureaucracy to the democrats. Subsequently, difficulties in carrying out reforms aggravated the internal political situation in the country. The government’s struggle with opponents “from the left” became brutal: the suppression of peasant uprisings, the arrests of liberals, the defeat of the Polish uprising. The role of the III Security (gendarmerie) department has strengthened.

IN 1860s a radical movement entered the political arena - populists. The common intelligentsia, relying on revolutionary democratic ideas and nihilism DI. Pisareva, created theory of revolutionary populism. The populists believed in the possibility of achieving socialism, bypassing capitalism, through the liberation of the peasant community - the rural "world". "Rebel" M.A. Bakunin predicted a peasant revolution, the fuse of which was to be lit by the revolutionary intelligentsia. P.N. Tkachev was the theorist of a coup d'etat, after which the intelligentsia, having carried out the necessary transformations, would liberate the community. P.L. Lavrov substantiated the idea of ​​thoroughly preparing peasants for the revolutionary struggle. IN 1874 began a mass “going to the people”", but the agitation of the populists failed to ignite the flame of the peasant uprising.

In 1876 it arose organization "Land and Freedom"", which in 1879 split into two groups.

Group " Black redistribution" led by G.V. Plekhanov paid primary attention to propaganda;

« People's Will" headed by A.I. Zhelyabov, N.A. Morozov, S.L. Perovskaya in highlighted political struggle. The main means of struggle, according to the “People’s Will”, was individual terror, a regicide that was supposed to serve as a signal for a popular uprising. In 1879-1881. Narodnaya Volya held a series assassination attempts on Alexander II.

In a situation of acute political confrontation, the authorities took the path of self-defense. On February 12, 1880 it was created “The Supreme Administrative Commission for the Protection of State Order and Public Peace"led by M.P. Loris-Melikov. Having received unlimited rights, Loris-Melikov achieved a suspension of the terrorist activities of the revolutionaries and some stabilization of the situation. In April 1880 the commission was liquidated; Loris-Melikov was appointed Minister of Internal Affairs and began to prepare the completion of the “great work of state reforms”. The development of draft laws for the final reform laws was entrusted to the “people” - temporary preparatory commissions with broad representation of zemstvos and cities.

On February 5, 1881, the presented bill was approved by Emperor Alexander II. " Loris-Melikov Constitution"provided for the election of "representatives from public institutions..." to the highest bodies of state power. In the morning March 1, 1881 The emperor appointed a meeting of the Council of Ministers to approve the bill; literally in a few hours Alexander II was killed members of the People's Will organization.

New Emperor Alexander III On March 8, 1881, he held a meeting of the Council of Ministers to discuss the Loris-Melikov project. At the meeting, the Chief Prosecutor of the Holy Synod, K.P., sharply criticized the “constitution.” Pobedonostsev and the head of the State Council S.G. Stroganov. Loris-Melikov's resignation soon followed.

IN May 1883 Alexander III proclaimed a course called in historical materialist literature “ counter-reforms», and in the liberal-historical - “adjustment of reforms”. He expressed himself as follows.

In 1889, to strengthen supervision over the peasants, the positions of zemstvo chiefs with broad rights were introduced. They were appointed from local noble landowners. Clerks and small traders, as well as other low-income strata of the city, lost their right to vote. Judicial reform has undergone changes. In the new regulations on zemstvos of 1890, class and noble representation was strengthened. In 1882-1884. Many publications were closed, and the autonomy of universities was abolished. Primary schools were transferred to the church department - the Synod.

These events showed the idea of ​​"official nationality""from the time of Nicholas I - slogan " Orthodoxy. Autocracy. Spirit of Humility"was in tune with the slogans of a bygone era. New official ideologists K.P. Pobedonostsev (Chief Prosecutor of the Synod), M.N. Katkov (editor of the Moskovskie Vedomosti), Prince V. Meshchersky (publisher of the newspaper Citizen) omitted the word “people” from the old formula “Orthodoxy, autocracy and the people” as “dangerous”; They preached the humility of his spirit before the autocracy and the church. In practice, the new policy resulted in an attempt to strengthen the state by relying on the noble class traditionally loyal to the throne. Administrative measures were reinforced economic support for landowners.

Related information.

Establishment of zemstvos. After the abolition of serfdom, a number of other transformations were required. By the beginning of the 60s. the previous local management showed its complete failure. The activities of the officials appointed in the capital in charge of the provinces and districts, and the detachment of the population from making any decisions, brought economic life, health care, and education to extreme disorder. The abolition of serfdom made it possible to involve all segments of the population in solving local problems. At the same time, when establishing new governing bodies, the government could not help but take into account the sentiments of the nobles, many of whom were dissatisfied with the abolition of serfdom.

On January 1, 1864, an imperial decree introduced the “Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions,” which provided for the creation of elected zemstvos in districts and provinces. Only men enjoyed the right to vote in the elections of these bodies. Voters were divided into three curia (categories): landowners, urban voters and elected from peasant societies. Owners of at least 200 dessiatines of land or other real estate worth at least 15 thousand rubles, as well as owners of industrial and commercial enterprises generating income of at least 6 thousand rubles per year could be voters in the landowner curia. Small landowners, uniting, nominated only authorized representatives for elections.

The voters of the city curia were merchants, owners of enterprises or trading establishments with an annual turnover of at least six thousand rubles, as well as owners of real estate worth from 600 rubles (in small towns) to 3.6 thousand rubles (in large cities).

Elections for the peasant curia were multi-stage: first, village assemblies elected representatives to volost assemblies. At volost assemblies, electors were first elected, who then nominated representatives to county government bodies. Representatives from peasants to provincial self-government bodies were elected at district assemblies.

Zemstvo institutions were divided into administrative and executive. The administrative bodies - zemstvo assemblies - consisted of members of all classes. In both districts and provinces, councilors were elected for a term of three years. Zemstvo assemblies elected executive bodies - zemstvo councils, which also worked for three years. The range of issues that were resolved by zemstvo institutions was limited to local affairs: the construction and maintenance of schools, hospitals, the development of local trade and industry, etc. The governor monitored the legality of their activities. The material basis for the existence of zemstvos was a special tax that was levied on real estate: land, houses, factories and commercial establishments.

The most energetic, democratically minded intelligentsia grouped around the zemstvos. The new self-government bodies raised the level of education and public health, improved the road network and expanded agronomic assistance to peasants on a scale that state power was unable to achieve. Despite the fact that representatives of the nobility predominated in the zemstvos, their activities were aimed at improving the situation of the broad masses.

Zemstvo reform was not carried out in the Arkhangelsk, Astrakhan and Orenburg provinces, in Siberia, in Central Asia - where noble land ownership was absent or insignificant. Poland, Lithuania, Belarus, Right Bank Ukraine, and the Caucasus also did not receive local government bodies, since there were few Russians among the landowners there.

Self-government in cities. In 1870, following the example of the zemstvo, an urban reform was carried out. She introduced all-class self-government bodies - city councils elected for four years. Voters of the Duma elected permanent executive bodies - city councils - for the same term, as well as the city mayor, who was the head of both the Duma and the council.

The right to elect members of the new governing bodies was given to men who had reached the age of 25 and paid city taxes. All voters, in accordance with the amount of taxes paid to the city, were divided into three curiae. The first was a small group of the largest owners of real estate, industrial and commercial enterprises, who paid 1/3 of all taxes to the city treasury. The second curia included smaller taxpayers, contributing another 1/3 of city taxes. The third curia consisted of all other taxpayers. Moreover, each of them elected an equal number of members to the city duma, which ensured the predominance of large property owners in it.

The activities of city government were controlled by the state. The mayor was approved by the governor or the minister of internal affairs. These same officials could impose a ban on any decision of the city council. To control the activities of city self-government, a special body was created in each province - the provincial presence for city affairs.

City self-government bodies appeared in 1870, first in 509 Russian cities. In 1874, the reform was introduced in the cities of Transcaucasia, in 1875 - in Lithuania, Belarus and Right Bank Ukraine, in 1877 - in the Baltic states. It did not apply to the cities of Central Asia, Poland and Finland. Despite all its limitations, the urban reform of the emancipation of Russian society, like the zemstvo reform, contributed to the involvement of broad sections of the population in solving management issues. This served as a prerequisite for the formation of civil society and the rule of law in Russia.

Judicial reform. The most consistent transformation of Alexander II was the judicial reform carried out in November 1864. In accordance with it, the new court was built on the principles of bourgeois law: equality of all classes before the law; publicity of the court"; independence of judges; adversarial nature of prosecution and defense; irremovability of judges and investigators; election of some judicial bodies.

According to the new judicial statutes, two systems of courts were created - magistrates and general. Magistrates' courts heard minor criminal and civil cases. They were created in cities and counties. Justices of the peace administered justice individually. They were elected by zemstvo assemblies and city dumas. A high educational and property qualification was established for judges. At the same time, they received quite high wages - from 2200 to 9 thousand rubles per year.

The general court system included district courts and judicial chambers. Members of the district court were appointed by the emperor on the proposal of the Minister of Justice and considered criminal and complex civil cases. Criminal cases were tried with the participation of twelve jurors. The juror could be a Russian citizen aged 25 to 70 with an impeccable reputation, living in the area for at least two years and owning real estate worth at least 2 thousand rubles. The jury lists were approved by the governor. Appeals against the district court's decision were filed with the trial chamber. Moreover, an appeal against the verdict was allowed. The Trial Chamber also considered cases of official misconduct. Such cases were equated to state crimes and were heard with the participation of class representatives. The highest court was the Senate. The reform established the transparency of trials. They took place openly, in the presence of the public; newspapers published reports on trials of public interest. The adversarial nature of the parties was ensured by the presence at the trial of a prosecutor - a representative of the prosecution and a lawyer defending the interests of the accused. An extraordinary interest in advocacy has arisen in Russian society. Outstanding lawyers F.N. Plevako, A.I. Urusov, V.D. Spasovich, K.K. Arsenyev became famous in this field, laying the foundations of the Russian school of lawyer-speakers. The new judicial system retained a number of class remnants. These included volost courts for peasants, special courts for the clergy, military and high officials. In some national regions, the implementation of judicial reform has been delayed for decades. In the so-called Western Territory (Vilna, Vitebsk, Volyn, Grodno, Kiev, Kovno, Minsk, Mogilev and Podolsk provinces) it began only in 1872 with the creation of magistrates' courts. Justices of the peace were not elected, but appointed for three years. District courts began to be created only in 1877. At the same time, Catholics were prohibited from holding judicial positions. In the Baltic states, the reform began to be implemented only in 1889.

Only at the end of the 19th century. judicial reform was carried out in the Arkhangelsk province and Siberia (in 1896), as well as in Central Asia and Kazakhstan (in 1898). Here, too, justices of the peace were appointed, who simultaneously served as investigators; jury trials were not introduced.

Military reforms. Liberal reforms in society, the government's desire to overcome backwardness in the military field, and also to reduce military spending necessitated radical reforms in the army. They were carried out under the leadership of Minister of War D. A. Milyutin. In 1863-1864. reform of military educational institutions began. General education was separated from special education: future officers received general education in military gymnasiums, and professional training in military schools. Mostly children of nobles studied in these educational institutions. For people who did not have a secondary education, cadet schools were created, where representatives of all classes were accepted. In 1868, military gymnasiums were created to replenish the cadet schools.

In 1867 the Military Law Academy was opened, in 1877 the Naval Academy. Instead of conscription, all-class military service was introduced. According to the charter approved on January 1, 1874, persons of all classes from the age of 20 (later from the age of 21) were subject to conscription. The total service life for the ground forces was set at 15 years, of which 6 years were active service, 9 years were in reserve. In the navy - 10 years: 7 - active, 3 - in reserve. For persons who received an education, the period of active service was reduced from 4 years (for those who graduated from primary schools) to 6 months (for those who received higher education).

Only sons and the only breadwinners of the family were exempted from service, as well as those conscripts whose older brother was serving or had already served his term of active service. Those exempt from conscription were enlisted in the militia, which was formed only during the war. Not subject to conscription were clergy of all faiths, representatives of some religious sects and organizations, peoples of the North, Central Asia, and some residents of the Caucasus and Siberia. In the army, corporal punishment was abolished, caning was reserved only for penal prisoners), food was improved, barracks were re-equipped, and literacy training for soldiers was introduced. The army and navy were being rearmed: smooth-bore weapons were replaced by rifled ones, the replacement of cast iron and bronze guns with steel ones began; Rapid-firing rifles by the American inventor Berdan were adopted. The combat training system has changed. A number of new regulations, instructions, and training manuals were published, which set the task of teaching soldiers only what was necessary in war, significantly reducing the time for combat training.

As a result of the reforms, Russia received a massive army that met the requirements of the time. The combat effectiveness of the troops has increased significantly. The transition to universal military service was a serious blow to the class organization of society.

Reforms in the field of education. The education system has also undergone significant restructuring. In June 1864, the “Regulations on Primary Public Schools” were approved, according to which such educational institutions could be opened by public institutions and private individuals. This led to the creation of primary schools of various types - state, zemstvo, parish, Sunday, etc. The duration of education in them did not exceed, as a rule, three years.

Since November 1864, gymnasiums have become the main type of educational institution. They were divided into classic and real. In the classical ones, a large place was given to ancient languages ​​- Latin and Greek. The period of study in them was initially seven years, and since 1871 - eight years. Graduates of classical gymnasiums had the opportunity to enter universities. Six-year real gymnasiums were designed to prepare “for employment in various branches of industry and trade.”

The main attention was paid to the study of mathematics, natural science, and technical subjects. Access to universities was closed to graduates of real gymnasiums; they continued their studies at technical institutes. The beginning of women's secondary education was laid - women's gymnasiums appeared. But the amount of knowledge given in them was inferior to what was taught in men's gymnasiums. The gymnasium accepted children “of all classes, without distinction of rank or religion,” however, high tuition fees were set. In June 1864, a new charter for universities was approved, restoring the autonomy of these educational institutions. The direct management of the university was entrusted to the council of professors, which elected the rector and deans, approved educational plans, and resolved financial and personnel issues. Higher education for women began to develop. Since gymnasium graduates did not have the right to enter universities, higher women's courses were opened for them in Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kazan, and Kyiv. Women began to be admitted to universities, but as auditors.

The Orthodox Church during the period of reforms. Liberal reforms also affected the Orthodox Church. First of all, the government tried to improve the financial situation of the clergy. In 1862, a Special Presence was created to find ways to improve the life of the clergy, which included members of the Synod and senior state officials. Social forces were also involved in solving this problem. In 1864, parish trustees arose, consisting of parishioners who not only focused on the study of mathematics, natural science, and technical subjects. Access to universities was closed to graduates of real gymnasiums; they continued their studies at technical institutes.

The beginning of women's secondary education was laid - women's gymnasiums appeared. But the amount of knowledge given in them was inferior to what was taught in men's gymnasiums. The gymnasium accepted children “of all classes, without distinction of rank or religion,” however, high tuition fees were set.

In June 1864, a new charter for universities was approved, restoring the autonomy of these educational institutions. The direct management of the university was entrusted to the council of professors, which elected the rector and deans, approved educational plans, and resolved financial and personnel issues. Higher education for women began to develop. Since gymnasium graduates did not have the right to enter universities, higher women's courses were opened for them in Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kazan, and Kyiv. Women began to be admitted to universities, but as auditors.

The Orthodox Church during the period of reforms. Liberal reforms also affected the Orthodox Church. First of all, the government tried to improve the financial situation of the clergy. In 1862, a Special Presence was created to find ways to improve the life of the clergy, which included members of the Synod and senior state officials. Social forces were also involved in solving this problem. In 1864, parish trustees arose, consisting of parishioners who not only managed the affairs of the parish, but were also supposed to help improve the financial situation of the clergy. In 1869-79 the incomes of parish priests increased significantly due to the abolition of small parishes and the establishment of an annual salary, which ranged from 240 to 400 rubles. Old-age pensions were introduced for clergy.

The liberal spirit of reforms carried out in the field of education also affected church educational institutions. In 1863, graduates of theological seminaries received the right to enter universities. In 1864, children of the clergy were allowed to enter gymnasiums, and in 1866 - into military schools. In 1867, the Synod decided to abolish the heredity of parishes and the right of admission to seminaries for all Orthodox Christians without exception. These measures destroyed class barriers and contributed to the democratic renewal of the clergy. At the same time, they led to the departure from this environment of many young, gifted people who joined the ranks of the intelligentsia. Under Alexander II, the Old Believers were legally recognized: they were allowed to register their marriages and baptisms in civil institutions; they could now hold some public positions and freely travel abroad. At the same time, in all official documents, adherents of the Old Believers were still called schismatics, and they were prohibited from holding public office.

Conclusion: During the reign of Alexander II, liberal reforms were carried out in Russia, affecting all aspects of public life. Thanks to the reforms, significant sections of the population acquired initial skills in management and public work. The reforms laid down traditions, albeit very timid ones, of civil society and the rule of law. At the same time, they retained the class advantages of the nobles, and also had restrictions for the national regions of the country, where the free popular will determines not only the law, but also the personality of the rulers; in such a country, political murder as a means of struggle is a manifestation of the same spirit of despotism, the destruction of which in We set Russia as our task. The despotism of the individual and the despotism of the party are equally reprehensible, and violence is justified only when it is directed against violence." Comment on this document.

The liberation of the peasants in 1861 and the subsequent reforms of the 60-70s became a turning point in Russian history. This period was called by liberal figures the era of “great reforms.” Their consequence was the creation of the necessary conditions for the development of capitalism in Russia, which allowed it to follow the pan-European path.

The rate of economic development in the country increased sharply, and the transition to a market economy began. Under the influence of these processes, new layers of the population were formed - the industrial bourgeoisie and the proletariat. Peasant and landowner farms were increasingly drawn into commodity-money relations.

The emergence of zemstvos, city self-government, and democratic transformations in the judicial and educational systems testified to Russia's steady, although not so rapid, movement towards the foundations of civil society and the rule of law.

However, almost all reforms were inconsistent and unfinished. They maintained the class advantages of the nobility and state control over society. On the national outskirts, reforms were implemented incompletely. The principle of the autocratic power of the monarch remained unchanged.

The foreign policy of the government of Alexander II in almost all main directions was active. Through diplomatic and military means, the Russian state managed to solve the foreign policy tasks facing it and restore its position as a great power. The borders of the empire expanded due to the Central Asian territories.

The era of “great reforms” was a time when social movements transformed into a force capable of influencing or resisting power. Fluctuations in government policy and the inconsistency of reforms led to an increase in radicalism in the country. Revolutionary organizations took the path of terror, trying to rouse the peasants to revolution by killing the tsar and senior officials.

Russian culture of the 19th century.

The 19th century became the golden age of Russian culture. Peter's reforms, in fact, prepared the forces so that Russia would experience its revival in the 19th century.

The 19th century is truly the golden age of Russian culture, it is the development of science, the development of education, Russian literature with its many names (primarily A.S. Pushkin) that created the modern Russian literary language.

If today you take Derzhavin’s predecessors, Pushkin’s teachers, then, undoubtedly, you feel a certain difficulty in reading their work, and when you take Pushkin’s work, despite the fact that at least 200 years have passed since the creation of these works, you feel it when reading these poems a certain episode, respectively understanding and realizing them. And after 100-80 years we read these verses completely calmly.

In the 19th century, such phenomena of Russian culture appeared in the prose of Gogol, Dostoevsky, Turgenev, etc.

Social transformations became a huge event for Russian culture; it is no coincidence that in the second half of the 19th century we see the desire of musicians and artists to contribute to the social development of Russia, hence such works as the mighty handful (associations of groups and composers) appear, as the phenomenon of the Peredvizhniki Russian artists (who created a partnership of Peredvizhniki art exhibitions), we see huge phenomena in Russian science - this is, first of all, passing around the name of Mendeleev, who created the periodic system, etc.

1. Russian culture of the 19th century

To understand the characteristics of Russian culture in the 19th and early 20th centuries. knowledge of the nature of politics, economics and law of the Russian Empire is essential. As a result of Peter's reforms in Russia, an absolute monarchy was established and the bureaucracy was legislated, which was especially evident in the “golden age” of Catherine II. Beginning of the 19th century was marked by the ministerial reform of Alexander 1, who in practice pursued a line to strengthen the feudal-absolutist order, taking into account the new “spirit of the times,” primarily the influence of the Great French Revolution of 1789 on the minds and on Russian culture. One of the archetypes of this culture is the love of freedom, glorified by Russian poetry, starting with Pushkin and ending with Tsvetaeva. The establishment of ministries marked the further bureaucratization of management and improvement of the central apparatus of the Russian Empire. One of the elements of modernization and Europeanization of the Russian state machine is the establishment of the State Council, whose function was to centralize legislative affairs and ensure uniformity of legal norms.

Ministerial reform and the formation of the State Council completed the reorganization of central government bodies that existed until 1917. After the abolition of serfdom in 1861, Russia firmly embarked on the path of capitalist development. However, the political system of the Russian Empire was thoroughly permeated with serfdom. Under these conditions, the bureaucracy turned into a “weathervane”, trying to ensure the interests of the bourgeoisie and nobles; the same situation persisted later, in the era of imperialism. We can say that the political system of Russia was conservative in nature, and this was also reflected in the law. The latter is a mixed law, because it intertwined the norms of feudal and bourgeois law. In connection with the development of bourgeois relations in the 70s of the last century, the “Russian Civil Code” was adopted, copied from the Napoleonic Code, which was based on classical Roman law.

The political system and law express the peculiarities of the economic development of Russia in the 19th century, when a new, capitalist mode of production was formed in the depths of serfdom.

The main area where the new method of production was formed earlier and more intensively was industry. Russia in the first half of the last century was characterized by widespread small industry, predominantly peasant industry. In the sphere of manufacturing industry, which produced consumer goods, small peasant crafts occupied a dominant position. The development of peasant industry transformed the economic appearance of the village and the very life of the peasant. In the fishing villages, the processes of social stratification of the peasantry and their separation from agriculture took place more intensely, and the conflict between phenomena of a capitalist nature and feudal relations became more acute. But this was only the case in the most economically developed central industrial region; in other areas, subsistence farming predominated. And only after 1861 an industrial revolution was carried out in Russia, but the emerging Russian bourgeoisie depended on tsarism; it was characterized by political inertia and conservatism. All this left its mark on the development of Russian culture, gave it a contradictory character, but, ultimately, contributed to its high rise.

Indeed, serfdom, which kept the peasantry in darkness and downtroddenness, tsarist arbitrariness, suppressing any living thought, and the general economic backwardness of Russia in comparison with Western European countries hindered cultural progress. And yet, despite these unfavorable conditions and even despite them, Russia in the 19th century made a truly gigantic leap in the development of culture and made an enormous contribution to world culture. This rise of Russian culture was due to a number of factors. First of all, it was associated with the process of formation of the Russian nation in the critical era of transition from feudalism to capitalism, with the growth of national self-awareness and was its expression. Of great importance was the fact that the rise of Russian national culture coincided with the beginning of the revolutionary liberation movement in Russia.

An important factor that contributed to the intensive development of Russian culture was its close communication and interaction with other cultures. The world revolutionary process and advanced Western European social thought had a strong influence on the culture of Russia. This was the heyday of German classical philosophy and French utopian socialism, the ideas of which were widely popular in Russia. We should not forget the influence of the heritage of Muscovite Rus' on the culture of the 19th century: the assimilation of old traditions made it possible to sprout new shoots of creativity in literature, poetry, painting and other spheres of culture. N. Gogol, N. Leskov, P. Melnikov-Pechersky, F. Dostoevsky and others created their works in the traditions of ancient Russian religious culture. But the work of other geniuses of Russian literature, whose attitude to Orthodox culture is more controversial - from A. Pushkin and L. Tolstoy to A. Blok - bears an indelible stamp testifying to Orthodox roots. Even the skeptical I. Turgenev gave an image of Russian folk holiness in the story “Living Relics”. Of great interest are the paintings of M. Nesterov, M. Vrubel, K. Petrov-Vodkin, the origins of creativity, which go back to Orthodox iconography.

Ancient church singing (the famous chant), as well as the later experiments of D. Bortnyansky, P. Tchaikovsky and S. Rachmaninov, became striking phenomena in the history of musical culture.

Russian culture accepted the best achievements of the cultures of other countries and peoples, without losing its originality and, in turn, influencing the development of other cultures. For example, Russian religious thought left a significant mark on the history of European peoples. Russian philosophy and theology influenced Western European culture in the first half of the 20th century. thanks to the works of V. Solovyov, S. Bulgakov, P. Florensky, N. Berdyaev, M. Bakunin and many others. Finally, the most important factor that gave a strong impetus to the development of Russian culture was the “thunderstorm of the twelfth year.” The rise of patriotism in connection with the Patriotic War of 1812 contributed not only to the growth of national self-awareness and the formation of Decembrism, but also to the development of Russian national culture. V. Belinsky wrote: “The year 1812, having shaken all of Russia, aroused the people’s consciousness and people’s pride.”

Cultural and historical process in Russia in the 19th - early 20th centuries. has its own characteristics. There is a noticeable acceleration in its pace, due to the above-mentioned factors. At the same time, on the one hand, there was a differentiation (or specialization) of various spheres of cultural activity (especially in science), and on the other, a complication of the cultural process itself, i.e., greater “contact” and mutual influence of various areas of culture: philosophy and literature, literature, painting and music, etc. It is also necessary to note the strengthening of the processes of diffuse interaction between the components of Russian national culture - the official (“high” professional) culture, sponsored by the state (the church is losing spiritual power), and the culture of the masses (“folklore” layer "), which originates in the depths of the East Slavic tribal unions, is formed in Ancient Rus' and continues its full-blooded existence throughout Russian history. In the depths of the official state culture there is a noticeable layer of “elite” culture, serving the ruling class (the aristocracy and the royal court) and having a special receptivity to foreign innovations. Suffice it to recall the romantic painting of O. Kiprensky, V. Tropinin, K. Bryullov, A. Ivanov and other major artists of the 19th century.

Since the 17th century. A “third culture” is taking shape and developing, amateur and handicraft, on the one hand, based on folklore traditions, and on the other, gravitating towards the forms of official culture. In the interaction of these three layers of culture, often conflicting, the prevailing tendency is towards a unified national culture based on the rapprochement of official art and folklore, inspired by the ideas of nationality and nationality. These aesthetic principles were established in the aesthetics of the Enlightenment (P. Plavilshchikov, N. Lvov, A. Radishchev), and were especially important in the era of Decembrism in the first quarter of the 19th century. (K. Ryleev, A. Pushkin) and acquired fundamental importance in the creativity and aesthetics of the realistic type in the middle of the last century.

The intelligentsia, initially made up of educated people of two privileged classes - the clergy and nobles, is increasingly participating in the formation of Russian national culture. In the first half of the 18th century. common intellectuals appeared, and in the second half of this century a special social group emerged - the serf intelligentsia (actors, painters, architects, musicians, poets). If in the XVIII - first half of the XIX century. The leading role in culture belongs to the noble intelligentsia, then in the second half of the 19th century. - commoners. People from peasant backgrounds joined the ranks of the intelligentsia (especially after the abolition of serfdom). In general, the raznochintsy included educated representatives of the liberal and democratic bourgeoisie, who did not belong to the nobility, but to the bureaucrats, philistines, merchants and peasants. This explains such an important feature of the culture of Russia in the 19th century as the beginning of the process of its democratization. It manifests itself in the fact that not only representatives of the privileged classes are gradually becoming cultural figures, although they continue to occupy a leading place. The number of writers, poets, artists, composers, scientists from unprivileged classes, in particular from the serf peasantry, but mainly from among commoners, is increasing.

In the 19th century literature becomes the leading area of ​​Russian culture, which was facilitated, first of all, by its close connection with progressive liberation ideology. Pushkin's ode "Liberty", his "Message to Siberia" to the Decembrists and "Response" to this message of the Decembrist Odoevsky, Ryleev's satire "To the Temporary Worker" (Arakcheev), Lermontov's poem "On the Death of a Poet", Belinsky's letter to Gogol were, in essence, , political pamphlets, militant, revolutionary appeals that inspired progressive youth. The spirit of opposition and struggle inherent in the works of progressive writers in Russia made Russian literature of that time one of the active social forces.

Even against the background of all the richest world classics, Russian literature of the last century is an exceptional phenomenon. One could say that it is like the Milky Way, clearly visible in a star-strewn sky, if some of the writers who made its fame did not look more like dazzling luminaries or independent “universes.” The names alone of A. Pushkin, M. Lermontov, N. Gogol, F. Dostoevsky, L. Tolstoy immediately evoke ideas about vast artistic worlds, a multitude of ideas and images that are refracted in their own way in the minds of more and more generations of readers. The impressions produced by this “golden age” of Russian literature were perfectly expressed by T. Mann. Speaking about its “extraordinary internal unity and integrity,” “the close cohesion of its ranks, the continuity of its traditions.” We can say that Pushkin's poetry and Tolstoy's prose are a miracle; It is no coincidence that Yasnaya Polyana was the intellectual capital of the world in the last century.

A. Pushkin was the founder of Russian realism, his novel in verse “Eugene Onegin,” which V. Belinsky called the encyclopedia of Russian life, was the highest expression of realism in the work of the great poet.

Outstanding examples of realistic literature are the historical drama “Boris Godunov”, the stories “The Captain’s Daughter”, “Dubrovsky”, etc. Pushkin’s global significance is associated with the awareness of the universal significance of the tradition he created. He paved the way for the literature of M. Lermontov, N. Gogol, I. Turgenev, L. Tolstoy, F. Dostoevsky and A. Chekhov, which rightfully became not only a fact of Russian culture, but also the most important moment in the spiritual development of mankind.

Pushkin's traditions were continued by his younger contemporary and successor M. Lermontov. The novel “A Hero of Our Time,” which is in many ways consonant with Pushkin’s novel “Eugene Onegin,” is considered the pinnacle of Lermontov’s realism. The work of M. Lermontov was the highest point in the development of Russian poetry of the post-Pushkin period and opened new paths in the evolution of Russian prose. His main aesthetic reference point is the work of Byron and Pushkin during the period of “southern poems” (Pushkin’s romanticism). Russian “Byronism” (this romantic individualism) is characterized by the cult of titanic passions and extreme situations, lyrical expression combined with philosophical self-absorption. Therefore, Lermontov’s attraction to ballads, romances, and lyric-epic poems, in which love has a special place, is understandable. Lermontov's method of psychological analysis, the “dialectics of feelings,” had a strong influence on subsequent literature.

Gogol’s work also developed in the direction from pre-romantic and romantic forms to realism, which turned out to be a decisive factor in the subsequent development of Russian literature. In his “Evenings on a Farm near Dikanka” the concept of Little Russia - this Slavic ancient Rome - as an entire continent on the map of the universe, with Dikanka as its original center, as the focus of both national spiritual specificity and national destiny, is artistically realized. At the same time, Gogol is the founder of the “natural school” (the school of critical realism); By chance, N. Chernyshevsky called the 30s - 40s of the last century the Gogol period of Russian literature. “We all came out of Gogol’s “Overcoat”,” Dostoevsky figuratively remarked, characterizing Gogol’s influence on the development of Russian literature. At the beginning of the 20th century. Gogol receives worldwide recognition and from that moment on becomes an active and ever-increasing figure in the world artistic process, and the deep philosophical potential of his work is gradually realized.

The work of the brilliant L. Tolstoy deserves special attention, which marked a new stage in the development of Russian and world realism and built a bridge between the traditions of the classical novel of the 19th century. and literature of the 20th century.

The peasant reform of 1861 led to changes in the economic structure of society, which necessitated the transformation of the political system. The new bourgeois reforms, wrested from the government during the period of democratic upsurge, were a by-product of the revolutionary struggle.

Reforms in Russia were not a cause, but a consequence of the development of socio-economic processes. At the same time, after implementation, the reforms objectively had the opposite effect on these processes. The reforms carried out were contradictory in nature - tsarism tried to adapt the old political system of autocracy to new conditions without changing its class essence. The reforms (1863-1874) were half-hearted, inconsistent and unfinished. They were designed during the years of the revolutionary situation, and some of them were carried out 10-15 years later in the context of the decline of the revolutionary wave. The tasks of organizing local self-government were to be solved by zemstvo and city reforms. In accordance with the “Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions” (1864), elected local government bodies - zemstvos - were introduced in the districts and provinces. Formally, zemstvo institutions consisted of representatives of all classes, but suffrage was determined by property qualifications. Members of zemstvo assemblies (vocals) were elected in three curiae: landowners, urban voters and electors from rural societies (in the last curia elections were multi-level). The chairman of the meetings was the leader of the nobility. Executive bodies were also created - provincial and district zemstvo councils. Zemstvos did not have political functions and did not have executive power; they resolved mainly economic issues, but even within these limits they were controlled by governors and the Ministry of Internal Affairs. Zemstvos were introduced gradually (until 1879) and not in all regions of the empire. Already at this time their competence was increasingly limited by the government. However, despite the restrictions, zemstvos in Russia played a significant role in resolving issues of both economic and cultural nature (education, medicine, zemstvo statistics, etc.). The new system of city government institutions (city councils and councils), created on the basis of the “City Regulations” (1870), was based on the bourgeois principle of a single property qualification. Elections took place in curiae, which were determined in accordance with the amount of tax paid. The overwhelming majority of residents who do not have an established property qualification were excluded from the elections. As a result of the reform of local government bodies, the dominant position in zemstvos (especially at the provincial level) was occupied by the nobility, and in city councils - by representatives of the big bourgeoisie. City government bodies were also under the constant control of the government and mainly resolved issues related to the management of the city economy.

The Russian legal system remained the most archaic in the mid-19th century.

The trial was class-based, the sessions were private and were not covered in the press. The judges were completely dependent on the administration, and the defendants had no defense lawyers. The bourgeois principle was most clearly manifested in the new judicial statutes of 1864, which were based on the main principles of bourgeois law: the lack of class of the court, the adversarial nature of the process, publicity and independence of judges. The result of judicial reform was the introduction of two systems in Russia: crown and magistrate courts. The Crown Court had two jurisdictions: the district court and the trial chamber. During the trial, the prosecutor brought the charge, and the defense was conducted by lawyers (sworn attorneys). The decision on the guilt of the accused was made by elected jurors. The punishment was determined by the judge and two members of the court. Magistrates' courts tried minor crimes; legal proceedings here were conducted by magistrates elected by zemstvo assemblies or city dumas. However, the new system of legal proceedings also bore the imprint of old feudal remnants. Thus, special courts for certain categories of the population were retained (for example, volost courts for peasants). The transparency of legal proceedings and the independence of judges from the administration were also limited. Military reforms. The need to increase the combat capability of the Russian army, which became obvious already during the Crimean War and clearly declared itself during the European events of the 60-70s, when the Prussian army demonstrated its combat capability (the unification of Germany under the leadership of Prussia, the Franco-Prussian War of 1870) , demanded the implementation of fundamental military reforms. These reforms were carried out under the leadership of Minister of War D.A. Milyutin. In 1864, he introduced a system of military districts, and somewhat later centralized military administration. The system of military educational institutions was reformed, and new military regulations were adopted. The army was being rearmed. In 1874, all-class military service with a limited period of military service was introduced in Russia. Military service, instead of 25 years, was established for a period of 6 years (in active service) and 9 years in reserve. They served in the navy for 7 years and 3 years in the reserves. These periods were significantly reduced for persons with education. Thus, a mass army of the bourgeois type was created in the country, with limited personnel in peacetime and large human resources in case of war. However, as before, the cadre of officers of the Russian army consisted mainly of nobles, while the soldiers, who came from the peasant masses, had no rights.

Zemstvo reform. After the adoption of the Peasant Reform, there was a need to transform local government bodies. In 1864, zemstvo reform began to be introduced in the Russian Empire. In districts and provinces, zemstvo institutions were formed, which were elected bodies. Zemstvos did not have political functions; their competence primarily included solving local problems, regulating the work of schools and hospitals, building roads, and controlling trade and small industrial facilities. Zemstvos were controlled by local and central authorities, who had the right to refute the decisions of these bodies or suspend their activities. In cities, city councils were created, which had the same powers as zemstvos. The dominant role in zemstvos and city dumas belonged to representatives of the bourgeois class. Despite the fact that the reforms had a very narrow structure and did not actually solve the problems of socio-economic life, they became the first step towards the introduction of liberal democracy in the Russian Empire. Further introduction of reforms was completely stopped by the death of the emperor. His son Alexander II saw a completely different path of development for Russia. Financial reforms. The development of capitalist relations led to the reorganization of the financial system of the empire, which was greatly upset during the war. Among the most important measures to streamline finances was the creation of the State Bank (1860), streamlining the process of forming the state budget, and transforming state control. The consequence of the “sober” movement was the abolition of wine farming. Despite the fact that the financial reforms were bourgeois in nature, they did not change the class nature of the taxation system, in which the entire burden of taxes fell on the tax-paying population. Reforms in the field of education and press. The needs of the country's economic and political life made changes in the organization of public education necessary. In 1864, the “Regulations on Primary Public Schools” was published, which expanded the network of primary educational institutions. According to the “Regulations,” public institutions and even private individuals were allowed to open primary schools, but all of them were under the control of school councils. They taught writing, reading, the rules of arithmetic, the law of God and church singing in elementary school. Most primary schools were zemstvo (created by zemstvos), parochial and “ministerial” (established by the Ministry of Public Education). In 1864, a new charter of gymnasiums was introduced, which began to be divided into classical (focused on noble and bureaucratic children) and real (mainly for children of the bourgeoisie). We studied in gymnasiums for 7 years. In classical gymnasiums, emphasis was placed on a thorough study of ancient languages ​​(Latin and Greek); in real ones, instead of “classical” languages, extended courses in natural sciences were taught. Graduates of classical gymnasiums could enter universities without exams; “realistically” they mainly went to technical higher educational institutions. The number of primary and secondary educational institutions in Russia increased rapidly during the post-reform period. At the end of the 50s there were about 8 thousand, at the beginning of the 80s - over 22 thousand, and by the mid-90s over 78 thousand. However, by the end of the 19th century. Russia remained a country of illiterate people; there were almost 80% of them. In 1863, a new university statute came into force, which restored and expanded the autonomy of universities. New higher educational institutions were opened in the country, including technical ones, as well as women's courses in Moscow, St. Petersburg, and Kyiv. During the reforms, the government was forced to make a number of concessions in the field of censorship. “Temporary Rules for the Press” (1865) partially abolished preliminary censorship in the capitals, but at the same time established judicial liability for persons who violated the legislation in this area. Thus, despite the opposition of conservative circles, a whole complex of bourgeois reforms was implemented in Russia in the 60-70s. Many of them were contradictory and inconsistent, but in general they were a step forward towards the transformation of the Russian feudal monarchy into a bourgeois monarchy, contributed to the development of capitalist relations in the country, the growth of the economy and culture, and raised the prestige of Russia in the field of international relations. The revolutionary situation in the country did not develop into a revolution. Having reformed the political superstructure of society, the autocracy managed to retain its main positions; this created the preconditions for a possible turn, a reversal, which manifested itself during the period of reaction and counter-reforms of the 80-90s of the 19th century. The development of capitalism and the formation of the industrial proletariat in Russia in the 60s - mid-90s of the XIX century. After the abolition of serfdom, the development of capitalism in the country began at an unprecedented pace. Capitalist relations covered all spheres of the economy and contributed to the acceleration of the pace of development of the Russian national economy. For the period 60-90s of the XIX century. There are such important phenomena in the country's economy as the completion of the industrial revolution and the rapid development of a number of important industries, the gradual restructuring of the agricultural sector in a new capitalist way, the formation of the proletariat and the Russian industrial bourgeoisie.

Lesson objectives:

1. Study the main provisions of judicial, military reforms and reforms in the field of education of the 60-70s. XIX century, to form an idea of ​​their significance in the history of Russia.
2. Strengthen the skills of working with textbook text, generalizing historical facts, the ability to draw conclusions, solve a problem situation and argue your point of view. To develop the ability to work with the text of historical sources.
3. Contribute to the formation of a sense of pride in the historical past of your country.

Educational and methodological support for the lesson:

1. Danilova A.A. History of Russia, XIX century: textbook for 8th grade of general education institutions. – M.: Education, 2009
2. Presentation “Liberal reforms of the 60–70s. XIX century.” (Annex 1)
3. Documentation:
   Regulations on primary public schools (1864).
   Charter of gymnasiums and pro-gymnasiums of the department of the Ministry of Public Education (1864).
   The main provisions of the University Charter of 1863 (Appendix 2)

Lesson outline.

I. Stage of updating knowledge and motivating cognitive activity.

Teacher: Today in class we are completing the study of the reforms of Alexander II. Our task is to get acquainted with the content of judicial, military reforms and reforms in the field of education and evaluate the historical significance of all the reforms of the 60–70s. XIX century (Slide 2)

What reforms of Alexander II do you already know about, why did he go down in history as the Tsar-Liberator?

Students: peasant (1861), which freed peasants from serfdom, zemstvo (1864) and urban (1870) reforms (Slide 3).

Teacher: Why were these reforms necessary in Russia in the second half of the 19th century?

Students: the lag of Russia, the low efficiency of serf labor, mass uprisings of peasants, the Crimean War showed the lag of the army.

Teacher: liberal reforms of the 60–70s. XIX century have been and are being actively studied by historians. Historians of the 19th – early 20th centuries. assessed these reforms as great, but Soviet historians considered them incomplete and half-hearted (Slide 4). Your task is to give your assessment of the reforms at the end of the lesson. Filling out the table you started at home will help you with this. (Slide 5):

Checking homework: students read out the meaning and disadvantages of peasant, zemstvo, and urban reforms; explain the concepts of “civil society” and “rule of law” (Slide 6) .

II. Learning new material

Teacher: Let's continue studying the reforms of Alexander II and filling out the table.

1. Judicial reform of 1864 (Working with the textbook text: pp. 147–148.)

Read in the textbook about the content of judicial reform and tell about it according to plan (Slide 7):

1. principles of the new court
2. magistrates' courts
3. general courts:
   a) district courts
   b) court chambers
4. role of the Senate
5. importance of reform
6. shortcomings of the reform

Students' response:

1. principles of the new court: equality of all classes before the law, transparency of the court, independence of judges, adversarial prosecution and defense, election of some judicial bodies (Slide 8);
2. magistrates' courts heard minor criminal and civil cases, magistrates were elected by zemstvo assemblies and city dumas from persons at least 25 years old, there was a high educational and property qualification;
3. general courts: a) district courts were appointed by the emperor, considered criminal and complex civil cases, the former with the participation of 12 jurors who rendered a verdict;
   b) judicial chambers were appointed by the emperor, considered appeals, and considered cases of official misconduct;
4. Role of the Senate: the highest court (Slide 9);
5. the significance of the reform: the most advanced judicial system was created in Russia;
6. and shortcomings of the reform: maintaining special courts for peasants, clergy, military and high officials (Slide 10) .

We record the significance and disadvantages of the reform in the table.

2. Military reform of 1874

Teacher: The Crimean War showed the backwardness of the Russian army. How was it completed? What is conscription? Did the army have reserves?

Students: Since the time of Peter I, the Russian army was recruited on the basis of conscription - the fielding of a certain number of recruits from the community. The service lasted 25 years, so those who served were no longer considered liable for military service and the army had no reserves.

Teacher: Let's listen to a message about military reform. Your task is to name the main directions of the reform, its significance (Slide 11).

Student message about military reform.

Teacher: name the main directions of reform, directions of changes in the army. To do this, summarize the facts you have heard.

A) facts: the size of the Russian army in 1864 was 1 million 132 thousand people, in 1867 – 742 thousand people (Slide 12).

Students They name the direction: reducing the size of the army.

B) facts: the creation of military gymnasiums and schools for nobles, cadet schools for all classes, the opening of the Military Law Academy (1867), the Naval Academy (1877) (Slide 31).

Students: development of the military education system.

C) facts: abolition of recruitment, introduction of all-class military service from the age of 20 (Slide 14).

Students: changing the order of recruiting the army.

D) facts: smooth-bore weapons were replaced by rifled ones, cast-iron guns were replaced by steel ones, the H. Berdan rifle (Berdanka) was adopted by the Russian army, construction of a steam fleet began (Slide 15).

Students: rearmament of the army and navy.

D) facts: according to the new regulations, the task was to teach troops only what is necessary in war (shooting, loose formation, engineering), the time for drill training was reduced, corporal punishment was prohibited (Slide 16).

Students: improvement of combat training.

Students (Slide 17). The answers are recorded in a table.

3. Educational reforms (1863–1864)

Teacher: Already in the first half, three levels of education were formed: primary, secondary, and higher. The reforms affected each of them (Slide 18).

Let's work through the rows of documents and find out what has changed at each level of education.

1st row. Works with the Regulations on Primary Public Schools (1864) (Slide 19).

Answers the questions:

1. What educational institutions were created by this Regulation?
2. What was studied in public schools?
3. Who was accepted into public schools?
4. How was the issue of tuition fees resolved?

2nd row. Works with the Charter of gymnasiums and pro-gymnasiums of the Ministry of Public Education (1864) (Slide 20).

Answers the questions:

1. What types of gymnasiums did the Charter create? How were they different?
2. Who and for how many years could study in gymnasiums?
3. Was education in gymnasiums accessible to everyone?

3rd row. Works with the Fundamental Provisions of the University Charter of 1863. (slide 21).

Answers the questions:

1. Who ran the university?
2. How were the deans of faculties and the rector of the university appointed?
3. How was the University Court formed? What are its functions?
4. Who could become a university student?
5. What are the advantages of universities?

Teacher: the ability of universities to decide many issues themselves meant their autonomy, i.e. independence.

The reforms created conditions for the development of women's education: women's gymnasiums appeared, higher women's courses were opened (Bestuzhev courses in St. Petersburg), women began to be admitted to universities as volunteers, that is, they did not receive diplomas of higher education.

Students answer the teacher’s question about the meaning and disadvantages of the reform (Slide 22). The answers are entered into the table and its completion is completed. (Slide 23):

III. The final stage of the lesson

Students, looking at the summary table, formulate their assessments and explain them, note the significant role of reforms for Russia and the incompleteness of some of them.

Summing up the lesson.

Recording homework (Slide 24):
prepare for independent work,
repeat the content and significance of the reforms of Alexander II according to paragraph 20, pp. 144–150,
You can test your knowledge using a workshop on the website: http://fcior.edu.ru/card/9397/velikie-reformy.html