Realism years of existence. Critical realism in 19th century literature

Realism in literature is a direction whose main feature is a truthful depiction of reality and its typical features without any distortion or exaggeration. This originated in the 19th century, and its adherents sharply opposed sophisticated forms of poetry and the use of various mystical concepts in works.

Signs directions

Realism in 19th-century literature can be distinguished by clear characteristics. The main one is the artistic depiction of reality in images familiar to the average person, which he regularly encounters in real life. Reality in the works is considered as a means of man’s knowledge of the world around him and himself, and the image of each literary character is worked out in such a way that the reader can recognize himself, a relative, colleague or acquaintance in it.

In the novels and stories of realists, art remains life-affirming, even if the plot is characterized by tragic conflict. Another sign of this genre is the desire of writers to consider the surrounding reality in its development, and each writer tries to discover the emergence of new psychological, public and social relations.

Features of this literary movement

Realism in literature, which replaced romanticism, has the signs of art that seeks and finds truth, striving to transform reality.

In the works of realist writers, discoveries were made after much thought and dreaming, after analyzing subjective worldviews. This feature, which can be distinguished by the author’s perception of time, determined features realistic literature of the early twentieth century from traditional Russian classics.

Realism inXIX century

Such representatives of realism in literature as Balzac and Stendhal, Thackeray and Dickens, George Sand and Victor Hugo, in their works most clearly reveal the themes of good and evil, and avoid abstract concepts and show real life of their contemporaries. These writers make it clear to readers that evil lies in the lifestyle of bourgeois society, capitalist reality, and people’s dependence on various material values. For example, in Dickens's novel Dombey and Son, the owner of the company was heartless and callous not by nature. It’s just that he developed such character traits due to the presence big money and the ambition of the owner, for whom profit becomes the main achievement in life.

Realism in literature is devoid of humor and sarcasm, and the images of the characters are no longer the ideal of the writer himself and do not embody his cherished dreams. From the works of the 19th century, the hero practically disappears, in whose image the author’s ideas are visible. This situation is especially clearly visible in the works of Gogol and Chekhov.

However, this literary trend is most clearly manifested in the works of Tolstoy and Dostoevsky, who describe the world as they see it. This was expressed in the image of characters with their own strengths and weaknesses, the description of mental torment, a reminder to readers of the harsh reality that cannot be changed by one person.

As a rule, realism in literature also affected the fate of representatives of the Russian nobility, as can be judged from the works of I. A. Goncharov. Thus, the characters of the heroes in his works remain contradictory. Oblomov is a sincere and gentle person, but due to his passivity he is not capable of better things. Another character in Russian literature has similar qualities - the weak-willed but gifted Boris Raisky. Goncharov managed to create the image of an “anti-hero” typical of XIX century, which was noticed by critics. As a result, the concept of “Oblomovism” appeared, referring to all passive characters whose main features were laziness and lack of will.

Pushkin is rightfully considered the founder of Russian realism, the discoverer of the “poetry of reality” - the creator of “Eugene Onegin” and “Boris Godunov”, “Tales of Belkin”, “Dubrovsky” and “ Bronze Horseman», « Queen of Spades" And " The captain's daughter" In his work - for the first time - the line between the “high”, “poetic” and “low” spheres of existence was overcome, the view of society as a historically established integrity, subject to objective laws independent of man, was established. Under the pen of Pushkin the realist, Russian antiquity and Russian modernity appeared in their completeness and diversity, in the clash of opposing forces, the richness and complexity of characters, national-historical types: “ extra person"(Onegin), determined, passionate and selfless female nature (Tatiana), " little man"(Samson Vyrin), the leader of the peasant uprising (Pugachev), an egoistic individual striving with all his might for self-affirmation and enrichment (Hermann). Pushkin's work in many ways anticipated the development of Russian literature of the 19th century.

At the same time, Pushkin’s realism is still far from socio-historical determinism, characteristic of the realistic art of mature times. This is partly due to the fact that it (like realism of the first half of the century in general) matured and developed within romanticism. Romanticism and realism at that time moved in the same direction and were not isolated or separated from each other.

What determined and what was the basis for the coexistence of romanticism and realism in Pushkin’s work?

Romanticism - in Pushkin's understanding - is a synonym for freedom, the embodiment of rebellion and protest against the stagnation and immobility of life. In the first years of his stay in the South, the poet closely followed the course of revolutionary events in European countries; he had no doubt that the revolution would break out in Russia, and fervently believed in its success. All the more painfully did he accept the news of the defeat of the national liberation movements and the triumph - on a worldwide scale - of the forces of reaction.

Reflecting on the reasons for the failures of the liberation movement, Pushkin was increasingly inclined to think that even if the greatest of people, even the brightest and strong personalities unable to change and rebuild the world. The life of mankind is subject to some inevitable laws independent of man, which cannot be ignored. The poet now discovers the irresistible “power of things”, the need to take into account the really existing circumstances and arrangement social forces, the inertia of age-old habits and traditions and the uniqueness of the national-historical life of the people. In other words, the possibility of realizing lofty romantic ideals, which had previously seemed achievable, turned for him into an acute and painful problem. Search real ways of implementation romantic ideal and constitute the most important feature, the most important contradiction in Pushkin’s work, which largely predetermined the conjugation and cohesion of romantic and realistic principles in it.

If earlier, at the time of the “southern” poems, the poet, together with his heroes, dreamed of finding the kingdom of freedom outside the boundaries of modern realistic society, now, having become convinced that “the fate of people everywhere is the same,” he strives to find the possibilities of freedom within the boundaries of existence - within order of things, conditioned and approved by the logic of life circumstances and national historical traditions. That is why in “Eugene Onegin” and “Boris Godunov,” two of the greatest creations of the “post-crisis” era, Pushkin addresses the problem of human social existence and the problem of power - the most important factors that determine and regulate the boundaries and possibilities of personal freedom. Let us now move on to Pushkin’s novel in verse.

In 1849, at an exhibition at the Academy of Arts, three paintings by the artist Fedotov were shown “ Fresh gentleman», « The picky bride" and "Major's Matchmaking." Spectators crowded around them, looking at the scenes with curiosity. modern life, captured on small canvases. Academic walls are not accustomed to such paintings.

Most often they were decorated with large canvases that depicted events from biblical legends or ancient Greek epic. In addition, the author of these small genre paintings himself allowed himself such liberties that were not provided for by academic rules: he appeared in front of the audience near his works and began to recite poems he had composed, which described the scenes depicted.

“Honest gentlemen, please come here! - he recited like a raeshnik, inviting the audience. “You’re welcome, we won’t ask for money...”

The paintings shown at the exhibition immediately made Fedotov famous. But this success was both short-lived and belated. Soon they turned away from the artist, and three years after the exhibition he was no longer alive - he died at 37 years old.

But even in the few years that the artist worked, he left an indelible mark on Russian art. What are his features? creative biography and features of his works?

Pavel Andreevich Fedotov was born on July 4, 1815 in Moscow in the family of a retired officer. At first he did not even think of becoming an artist. The parents had difficulty getting the boy into the cadet corps. Having completed it brilliantly, Fedotov received the right to serve in the guard and was sent to St. Petersburg.

In the regiment, he began to draw: he sketched scenes of city life, made portraits, caricatures, battle pictures - and was more than once encouraged by his superiors for his success in the arts. He was even offered to resign in order to devote himself entirely to painting. But Fedotov did not dare to take this step for a long time and retired for 28 years. He already knew the way to the Academy of Arts and even used the advice of “the great Karl,” as K. P. Bryullov was then called. And after retirement, he began attending the academy’s battle class.

However, Fedotov’s art developed in its own way. Continuing to sketch scenes Everyday life, he takes on new task- composes several sketch compositions on moral and critical subjects. In these compositions everything is based on a story, in each of them there is a lot characters, characteristic details, various objects that also “lead” the story. Here we meet an old artist who married without a dowry in the hope of his talent, and now vegetates in poverty; the owner of a house in which everything is upside down due to the death of her beloved dog. In these seemingly harmless scenes, the viewer finds not only humor; they also have satirical features. Fedotov ridicules morals, thereby asserting new way in Russian fine arts- the path of critical realism.

The critical features in the artist’s work are increasingly intensified. He creates his famous canvases: “Fresh Cavalier”, “The Picky Bride”, “Major’s Matchmaking”, “Breakfast of an Aristocrat” - works that were destined to occupy such an important place in the history of Russian painting.

In these paintings by Fedotov there is Gogol’s “laughter through tears.” Laughing and crying, the artist denounces the vile laws that dominated life then - laws that turn marriage into a commercial transaction, elevating low and vile people to the ranks of the ranks. Fedotov's story becomes deep and convincing. Behind funny situations and unlucky heroes stands invisibly scary world, in which small people live, vulgarity flourishes and monstrous injustice reigns.

It was impossible not to notice the revealing essence of Fedotov’s paintings. It is no coincidence that when the tsarist government, frightened by the revolution that swept across Europe and the sentiments of the advanced part of Russian society, turned all possible means against free thought, patrons turned away from Fedotov, and censorship began to persecute him.

But Fedotov continued to create. IN last years life he creates beautiful paintings- “Widow”, “Anchor, more anchor”, “Players”. There is no longer any room for laughter here. In “The Widow,” Fedotov unfolds before the viewer a sad story about the bitter fate of a destitute woman. In “Players” and “Anchor” he talks about people who languish in idleness, not believing in anything, not hoping for anything, “smoking the sky” in vain. In these paintings there is an angry protest, all heartache Fedotov, all the melancholy that tormented him.

Fedotov did not give up until the end. But life still got the better of him. The artist died on November 14, 1852 in a mental hospital. And his fame continued to grow, deservedly elevating him to the rank of great Russian painters.

The emergence of realism

General character of realism

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction:

Relevance:

The essence of realism in relation to literature and its place in the literary process is understood in different ways. Realism is an artistic method, following which the artist depicts life in images that correspond to the essence of the phenomena of life itself and are created through typification of the facts of reality. In a broad sense, the category of realism serves to determine the relationship of literature to reality, regardless of the writer’s affiliation with a particular literary school and movement. The concept of “realism” is equivalent to the concept of life’s truth and in relation to the most diverse phenomena of literature.

Goal of the work:

consider the essence of realism as a literary movement in literature.

Tasks:

Explore the general nature of realism.

Consider the stages of realism.

The emergence of realism

In the 30s of the XIX century. Realism is becoming widespread in literature and art. The development of realism is primarily associated with the names of Stendhal and Balzac in France, Pushkin and Gogol in Russia, Heine and Buchner in Germany. Realism develops initially in the depths of romanticism and bears the stamp of the latter; not only Pushkin and Heine, but also Balzac experienced a strong fascination in their youth romantic literature. However, unlike romantic art, realism refuses the idealization of reality and the associated predominance of the fantastic element, as well as an increased interest in the subjective side of man. In realism, the prevailing tendency is to depict a broad social background against which the lives of the heroes take place (Balzac's "Human Comedy", Pushkin's "Eugene Onegin", Gogol's "Dead Souls", etc.). Depth of understanding social life Realist artists sometimes surpass the philosophers and sociologists of their time.

General character of realism

“Realism is opposed, on the one hand, to directions in which the content is subordinated to self-sufficient formal requirements (conventional formal tradition, canons of absolute beauty, the desire for formal sharpness, “innovation”); on the other hand, to trends that take their material not from real reality, but from the world of fantasy (whatever the origin of the images of this fantasy), or that seek in the images of real reality a “higher” mystical or idealistic reality. Realism excludes the approach to art as a free “creative” game and presupposes the recognition of reality and the knowability of the world. realism is the direction in art in which the nature of art as a special kind of cognitive activity is most clearly expressed. In general, realism is an artistic parallel to materialism. But fiction deals with a person and human society, that is, with a sphere that the materialist understanding consistently masters only from the point of view of revolutionary communism. Therefore, the materialistic nature of pre-proletarian (non-proletarian) realism remains largely unconscious. Bourgeois realism often finds its philosophical justification not only in mechanical materialism, but in a wide variety of systems - from various forms of “shameful materialism” to vitalism and to objective idealism. Only a philosophy that denies the knowability or reality of the external world excludes a realistic attitude.”

To one degree or another, all fiction has elements of realism, since reality, the world of social relations, is its only material. Literary image, completely divorced from reality, is unthinkable, and an image that distorts reality beyond known limits is devoid of any effectiveness. The inevitable elements of reflecting reality can, however, be subordinated to other types of tasks and so stylized in accordance with these tasks that the work loses any realistic character. Only such works can be called realistic in which the focus on depicting reality is predominant. This attitude can be spontaneous (naive) or conscious. In general, we can say that spontaneous realism is characteristic of the creativity of pre-class and pre-capitalist society to the extent that this creativity is not in slavery to an organized religious worldview or is not captured by a certain stylizing tradition. realism, as a companion to the scientific worldview, arises only at a certain stage in the development of bourgeois culture.

Since the bourgeois science of society either takes as its guiding thread an arbitrary idea imposed on reality, or remains in the swamp of creeping empiricism, or tries to extend it to human history scientific theories developed in natural science, bourgeois realism cannot yet be fully considered a manifestation of the scientific worldview. The gap between scientific and artistic thinking, which first became acute in the era of romanticism, is in no way eliminated, but is only glossed over in the era of the dominance of realism in bourgeois art. The limited nature of the bourgeois science of society leads to the fact that in the era of capitalism, artistic ways of understanding socio-historical reality often turn out to be much more effective than “scientific” ways. The artist’s keen vision and realistic honesty often help him show reality more accurately and completely than the principles of bourgeois scientific theory that distort it.

Realism includes two aspects: firstly, the depiction of the external features of a certain society and era with such a degree of concreteness that it gives the impression (“illusion”) of reality; secondly, a deeper revelation of the actual historical content, essence and meaning social forces through generalization images that penetrate beyond the surface. Engels, in his famous letter to Margaret Harkness, formulated these two points as follows: “In my opinion, realism implies, in addition to the truthfulness of details, the faithfulness of the presentation of typical characters in typical circumstances.”

But, despite their deep internal connection, they are by no means inseparable from one another. The mutual connection of these two moments depends not only on the historical stage, but also on the genre. This connection is strongest in narrative prose. In drama, especially in poetry, it is much less stable. The introduction of stylization, conventional fiction, etc. in itself does not at all deprive the work of its realistic character if its main thrust is aimed at depicting historically typical characters and situations. Thus, Goethe's Faust, despite its fantasy and symbolism, is one of the greatest creations of bourgeois realism, for the image of Faust provides a deep and true embodiment of certain traits of the rising bourgeoisie.

The problem of realism has been developed by Marxist-Leninist science almost exclusively in application to narrative and dramatic genres, the material for which is “characters” and “positions”. When applied to other genres and other arts, the problem of realism remains completely underdeveloped. Due to the much smaller number of direct statements of the classics of Marxism that can provide a specific guiding thread, vulgarization and simplification still reign here to a large extent. “When extending the concept of “realism” to other arts, two simplifying tendencies should be especially avoided:

1. the tendency to identify realism with external realism (in painting, to measure realism by the degree of “photographic” similarity) and

2. tendencies to mechanistically extend criteria developed in narrative literature to other genres and arts, without taking into account the specifics of a given genre or art. Such a gross simplification in relation to painting is the identification of realism with direct social subject matter, such as we find, for example, among the Wanderers. The problem of realism in such arts is, first of all, the problem of an image constructed in accordance with the specifics of this art and filled with realistic content.”

All this applies to the problem of realism in lyrics. Realistic lyrics are lyrics that truthfully express typical feelings and thoughts. In order to recognize a lyrical work as realistic, it is not enough that what it expresses is “generally significant”, “generally interesting” in general. Realistic lyrics are an expression of feelings and attitudes specifically typical of a class and era.

Stages of development realism XIX century

The formation of realism occurs in European countries and in Russia almost at the same time - in the 20s - 40s of the 19th century. It is becoming a leading trend in the literature of the world.

True, this simultaneously means that the literary process of this period is irreducible only in a realistic system. Both in European literatures, and - especially - in US literature, the work of romantic writers continues in full measure: de Vigny, Hugo, Irving, Poe, etc. Thus, the development literary process goes largely through the interaction of coexisting aesthetic systems, and the characteristics of both national literatures and creativity individual writers requires mandatory consideration of this circumstance.

Speaking of the fact that from the 30s - 40s leading place realist writers occupy a place in literature, it is impossible not to note that realism itself turns out to be not a frozen system, but a phenomenon in constant development. Already within the 19th century, the need arises to talk about “different realisms”, that Merimee, Balzac and Flaubert equally answered the main historical questions that the era suggested to them, and at the same time their works are distinguished by different content and originality forms.

In the 1830s - 1840s, the most remarkable features of realism as a literary movement that gives a multifaceted picture of reality, striving for an analytical study of reality, appear in the works of European writers (primarily Balzac).

“The literature of the 1830s and 1840s was largely fueled by statements about the attractiveness of the century itself. The love for the 19th century was shared, for example, by Stendhal and Balzac, who never ceased to be amazed at its dynamism, diversity and inexhaustible energy. Hence the heroes of the first stage of realism - active, with an inventive mind, not afraid of facing unfavorable circumstances. These heroes were largely associated with the heroic era of Napoleon, although they perceived his two-facedness and developed a strategy for their personal and public behavior. Scott and his historicism inspire Stendhal's heroes to find their place in life and history through mistakes and delusions. Shakespeare makes Balzac say about the novel “Père Goriot” in the words of the great Englishman “Everything is true” and see in the fate of the modern bourgeois echoes of the harsh fate of King Lear.”

"Realists second half of the 19th century centuries will reproach their predecessors for “residual romanticism.” It is difficult to disagree with such a reproach. Indeed, the romantic tradition is very noticeably represented in the creative systems of Balzac, Stendhal, and Merimee. It is no coincidence that Sainte-Beuve called Stendhal “the last hussar of romanticism.” Traits of romanticism are revealed:

– in the cult of exoticism (Mérimée’s short stories like “ Matteo Falcone", "Carmen", "Tamango", etc.);

– in the predilection of writers for depicting bright individuals and passions that are exceptional in their strength (Stendhal’s novel “Red and Black” or the short story “Vanina Vanini”);

– a passion for adventurous plots and the use of fantasy elements (Balzac’s novel “Shagreen Skin” or Merimee’s short story “Venus of Il”);

- in an effort to clearly divide the heroes into negative and positive - carriers of the author's ideals (Dickens's novels)."

Thus, between the realism of the first period and romanticism there is a complex “family” connection, manifested, in particular, in the inheritance of techniques and even individual themes and motifs characteristic of romantic art (the theme of lost illusions, the motif of disappointment, etc.).

In Russian historical and literary science, “the revolutionary events of 1848 and the important changes that followed them in the socio-political and cultural life of bourgeois society” are generally considered to be what divides “realism.” foreign countries XIX century into two stages - realism of the first and second half of the 19th century." In 1848 popular performances turned into a series of revolutions that swept across Europe (France, Italy, Germany, Austria, etc.). These revolutions, as well as the unrest in Belgium and England, followed the “French model”, as democratic protests against class-privileged and inappropriate rule of the time, as well as under the slogans of social and democratic reforms. Overall, 1848 marked one huge upheaval in Europe. True, as a result of it, moderate liberals or conservatives came to power everywhere, and in some places even a more brutal authoritarian government was established.

This caused general disappointment in the results of the revolutions, and, as a consequence, pessimistic sentiments. Many representatives of the intelligentsia became disillusioned with mass movements, active actions of the people on a class basis and transferred their main efforts to private world personality and personal relationships. Thus, the general interest was directed towards the individual, important in itself, and only secondarily - towards his relationships with other individuals and the world around him.

The second half of the 19th century is traditionally considered the “triumph of realism.” By this time, realism was loudly asserting itself in the literature not only of France and England, but also of a number of other countries - Germany (late Heine, Raabe, Storm, Fontane), Russia (“natural school”, Turgenev, Goncharov, Ostrovsky, Tolstoy , Dostoevsky), etc.

At the same time, since the 50s, a new stage in the development of realism begins, which involves a new approach to the depiction of both the hero and the society around him. The social, political and moral atmosphere of the second half of the 19th century “turned” writers towards the analysis of a person who can hardly be called a hero, but in whose fate and character the main signs of the era are refracted, expressed not in a major deed, a significant act or passion, compressed and intensely conveying global shifts of time, not in large-scale (both social and psychological) confrontation and conflict, not in typicality taken to the limit, often bordering on exclusivity, but in everyday life, everyday life.

Writers who began working at this time, as well as those who entered literature earlier, but worked during this period, for example, Dickens or Thackeray, of course, were already guided by a different concept of personality, which was not perceived or reproduced by them as a product of a direct relationship social and psychological-biological principles and strictly understood determinants. Thackeray's novel "The Newcombs" emphasizes the specificity of "human studies" in the realism of this period - the need to understand and analytically reproduce multidirectional subtle emotional movements and indirect, not always manifest social connections: “It’s hard to even imagine how many various reasons determines our every action or passion, how often, when analyzing my motives, I mistook one thing for another...” This phrase by Thackeray conveys, perhaps, main feature realism of the era: everything focuses on the depiction of man and character, and not circumstances. Although the latter, as they should in realistic literature, “do not disappear,” their interaction with character acquires a different quality, associated with the fact that circumstances cease to be independent, they become more and more characterologized; their sociological function is now more implicit than it was with Balzac or Stendhal.

Due to the changed concept of personality and the “human-centrism” of the whole artistic system(and “man is the center” was not necessarily positive hero, defeating social circumstances or perishing - morally or physically - in the fight against them) one may get the impression that the writers of the second half of the century abandoned the basic principle of realistic literature: dialectical understanding and depiction of the relationships between character and circumstances and adherence to the principle of socio-psychological determinism. Moreover, some of the most prominent realists of this time - Flaubert, J. Eliot, Trollott - when talking about the world surrounding the hero, the term “environment” appears, often perceived more statically than the concept of “circumstances”.

An analysis of the works of Flaubert and J. Eliot convinces us that artists need this “stacking” of the environment primarily so that the description of the situation surrounding the hero is more plastic. The environment often narratively exists in the inner world of the hero and through him, acquiring a different character of generalization: not poster-sociologized, but psychologized. This creates an atmosphere of greater objectivity in what is being reproduced. In any case, from the point of view of the reader, who trusts such an objectified narrative about the era more, since he perceives the hero of the work as a person close to him, just like himself.

Writers of this period do not at all forget about one more aesthetic setting of critical realism - the objectivity of what is reproduced. As is known, Balzac was so concerned about this objectivity that he looked for ways to bring literary knowledge (understanding) closer together with scientific knowledge. This idea appealed to many realists of the second half of the century. For example, Eliot and Flaubert thought a lot about the use of scientific, and therefore, as it seemed to them, objective methods of analysis in literature. Flaubert thought especially a lot about this, who understood objectivity as synonymous with impartiality and impartiality. However, this was the spirit of the entire realism of the era. Moreover, the work of realists in the second half of the 19th century occurred during the period of takeoff in the development of natural sciences and the heyday of experimentation.

This was an important period in the history of science. Biology developed rapidly (C. Darwin’s book “The Origin of Species” was published in 1859), physiology, and the formation of psychology as a science took place. The philosophy of positivism by O. Comte became widespread, and later played an important role in the development of naturalistic aesthetics and artistic practice. It was during these years that attempts were made to create a system of psychological understanding of man.

However, even at this stage of the development of literature, the character of the hero is not conceived by the writer outside of social analysis, although the latter acquires a slightly different aesthetic essence, different from that which was characteristic of Balzac and Stendhal. Of course, in Flaubert's novels. Eliot, Fontana and some others are striking " new level images of a person’s inner world, a qualitatively new skill psychological analysis“, which consists in the deepest disclosure of the complexity and unforeseenness of human reactions to reality, the motives and causes of human activity.”

It is obvious that the writers of this era sharply changed the direction of creativity and led literature (and the novel in particular) towards in-depth psychologism, and in the formula “social-psychological determinism” the social and psychological seemed to change places. It is in this direction that the main achievements of literature are concentrated: writers began not only to draw complex inner world literary hero, but to reproduce a well-functioning, thoughtful psychological “character model”, in it and in its functioning, artistically combining the psychological-analytical and social-analytical. Writers updated and revived the principle of psychological detail, introduced dialogue with deep psychological overtones, and found narrative techniques for conveying “transitional,” contradictory spiritual movements that were previously inaccessible to literature.

This does not mean at all that realistic literature abandoned social analysis: the social basis of reproduced reality and reconstructed character did not disappear, although it did not dominate character and circumstances. It was thanks to the writers of the second half of the 19th century that literature began to find indirect ways of social analysis, in this sense continuing a series of discoveries made by writers of previous periods.

Flaubert, Eliot, the Goncourt brothers and others “taught” literature to reach out to the social and what is characteristic of the era, characterizes its social, political, historical and moral principles, through the ordinary and everyday existence of an ordinary person. Social typification among writers of the second half of the century is the typification of “massiveness, repetition.” It is not as bright and obvious as among representatives of classical critical realism of the 1830s and 1840s and most often manifests itself through the “parabola of psychologism,” when immersion in the inner world of a character allows one to ultimately immerse oneself in the era in which historical time as the writer sees it. Emotions, feelings, and moods are not transtemporal, but of a specific historical nature, although it is primarily ordinary everyday existence that is subject to analytical reproduction, and not the world of titanic passions. At the same time, writers often even absolutized the dullness and wretchedness of life, the triviality of the material, the unheroic nature of time and character. That is why, on the one hand, it was an anti-romantic period, on the other, a period of craving for the romantic. This paradox, for example, is characteristic of Flaubert, the Goncourts, and Baudelaire.

There are also some more important points, associated with the absolutization of the imperfection of human nature and slavish subordination to circumstances: often writers perceived the negative phenomena of the era as a given, as something insurmountable, and even tragically fatal. That is why in the works of realists of the second half of the 19th century the positive principle is so difficult to express: the problem of the future interests them little, they are “here and now”, in their time, comprehending it in an extremely impartial manner, as an era, if worthy of analysis, then critical.

CRITICAL REALISM

from Greek kritike - the art of disassembling, judging and lat. realis - real, real) - a name assigned to the main realistic method of art of the 19th century, which was developed in the art of the 20th century. The term “critical realism” emphasizes the critical, accusatory pathos of democratic art in relation to existing reality. This term was proposed by Gorky to distinguish this type of realism from socialist realism. Previously, the unsuccessful term “bourgeois R.” was used, but the now accepted one is inaccurate: along with sharp criticism of the noble-bourgeois society (O. Balzac, O. Daumier, N.V. Gogol and the “natural school”, M.E. Saltykov- Shchedrin, G. Ibsen, etc.) many. prod. K.r. embodied the positive principles of life, the mood of progressive people, the labor and moral traditions of the people. Both started in Russian. Literature is represented by Pushkin, I. S. Turgenev, N. A. Nekrasov, N. S. Leskov, Tolstoy, A. P. Chekhov, in the theater - M. S. Shchepkin, in painting - “Itinerants”, in music - M . I. Glinka, composers " Mighty bunch", P. I. Tchaikovsky; in foreign XIX literature in. - Stendhal, C. Dickens, S. Zeromski, in painting - G. Courbet, in music - G. Verdi, L. Janacek. IN late XIX V. the so-called verism, which combined democratic tendencies with some crushing social issues(for example, operas by G. Puccini). A characteristic genre of literature of critical realism is the socio-psychological novel. Based on K. r. Russian classical art criticism(Belinsky, Chernyshevsky, Dobrolyubov, Stasov), ch. the principle of which was nationality. In critical realism, the formation and manifestation of characters, the fate of people, social groups, and individual classes are socially justified (the ruin of the local nobility, the strengthening of the bourgeoisie, the decomposition of traditional way of life peasant life), but not the fate of society as a whole: a change in the social structure and prevailing morality is conceived to one degree or another as a consequence of the improvement of morality or self-improvement of people, and not as the natural emergence of a new quality as a result of the development of society itself. This is the inherent contradiction of critical realism; in the 19th century. inevitable. In addition to socio-historical and psychological determinism, biological determinism is used in critical realism as an additional artistic emphasis (starting with the work of G. Flaubert); in L.N. Tolstoy and other writers it is consistently subordinated to the social and psychological, but, for example, in some works of the literary movement, the head of which, Emile Zola, theoretically substantiated and embodied the principle of naturalism, this type of determination was absolutized, which damaged the realistic principles of creativity . The historicism of critical realism is usually built on the contrast of the “present century” and the “past century”, on the opposition of generations of “fathers” and “children” (“Duma” by M. Yu. Lermontov, I. S. Turgenev “Fathers and Sons”, “Saga” about Farsites” by J. Galsworthy and others), ideas about periods of timelessness (for example, in O. Balzac, M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, A. P. Chekhov, a number of writers and artists of the early 20th century). Historicism in this understanding often prevented an adequate reflection of the past in historical works. Compared to production on contemporary themes, prod. There are few paintings that deeply reflect historical events (in literature - the epic "War and Peace" by Tolstoy, in painting - canvases by V. I. Surikov, I. E. Repin, in music - operas by M. P. Mussorgsky, J. . Verdi). IN foreign art in the 20th century Critical realism acquires a new quality, moving closer to different types of modernism and naturalism. Traditions of classical K. r. developed and enriched by J. Galsworthy, G. Wells, B. Shaw, R. Rolland, T. Mann, E. Hemingway, K. Chapek, Lu Xun and others. At the same time, many others. artists, especially in the second sex. XX century, carried away by modernist poetics, they retreat from art. historicism, their social determinism takes on a fatalistic character (M. Frisch, F. Dürrenmatt, G. Fallada, A. Miller, M. Antonioni, L. Buñuel, etc.). To the great achievements of K. r. cinematography includes the work of directors C. Chaplin, S. Kreimer, A. Kuro-sawa; a type of critical realism was Italian neorealism.

Conclusion

As noted earlier, realism is literary direction on a global scale. A notable feature of realism is also the fact that it has a long history. At the end of the 19th and 20th centuries, the work of such writers as R. Rolland, D. Golusorsi, B. Shaw, E. M. Remarque, T. Dreiser and others gained worldwide fame. Realism continues to exist to this day, remaining the most important form of world democratic culture.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. V.V. Sayanov Romanticism, realism, naturalism - L. - 1988.

2. E.A. Anichkov Realism and new trends. – M.: Science. - 1980.

3. M.E. Elizarova History foreign literature XIX century - M. - 1964.

4. P. S. Kogan Romanticism and realism in European literature of the 19th century. – M. – 1923

5. F. P. Schiller From the history of realism of the 19th century. in the West - M. - 1984.

The style, although it originated in Western Europe, became widespread in Russia. He was also admired during the Soviet Union, considered the forerunner of social realism. This direction has given the world many talents who have become legends of their time.

Origins

Fed up with romantic moods, writers, artists and philosophers, already in the Age of Enlightenment, began to increasingly turn to the realities of our time.

Prominent representatives philosophical direction of that time, people like Diderot and Rousseau look around and notice that there is poverty, filth, inappropriate working conditions and increased mortality all around. They draw their inspiration from this reality. A new style is starting to become popular.

The French writer Flaubert is no longer looking for romance in human essence; he shows only the very essence of life, without artistic embellishment.

Nineteenth century

Critical realism began to take shape in literature in the twenties of the nineteenth century, and its heyday fell in the forties. From year to year to the list famous figures culture and art of this direction, new names were added. More and more fans appeared.

The most prominent representatives of critical realism: Flaubert, Balzac, Stendhal, Bronte, Dickens, Heine, Dostoevsky, Chekhov.

After the sublime romance, the works of these geniuses sounded like a challenge to the entire society. And the population initially perceived it that way. Writers were scolded, they caused outrage. Many were persecuted and refused to be published.

The novelty of realism

The frank stories and pictures shocked me. What they previously closed their eyes to has surfaced.

Critical realism of the 19th century exposed the human essence. He presented it as it really is, with all its flaws.

This style quickly mixed with psychology and became the basis for fateful discoveries in this and other sciences.

Time gone by

The pathos of the Renaissance faded into the background. However, enlightenment and romanticism influenced realism so much that all the writers, poets, and artists of that time continued to believe that good would defeat evil, no matter what the framework, conditions and circumstances it was placed in.

During the revolution of 1789-1794, science rose above religious postulates. The bourgeoisie becomes the dominant stratum of the population. She wants changes in society. She begins to open schools, read books, study languages ​​and exact sciences.

With the flowering of realism, the ideas of Marxism appeared. He influences the style in his own way, introducing into it the spirit of revolution and rebellion. The worker class now becomes central.

Russia

Realism immediately took root in this country. He reached unprecedented heights in the Russian Empire. The art of realism became not only beloved in the state itself, but also indicative for everyone else. He was recognized all over the world. Classics this direction from Russia were admired far beyond its borders.

Russian ideologists

This movement has acquired various forms and famous followers. The main representative of realism, who was at its origins, was Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin. It was he who first began to write about the destinies of peasants and the life of various classes.

Pushkin became a revolutionary. He transformed the once lagging literature. After Alexander Sergeevich there was Gogol, who combined mysticism and critical realism with great skill. Thanks to these two prominent literary figures, a whole movement called the “Natural School” appeared.

Art was closely connected with politics. When Chernyshevsky led the democrats, it was transformed. Critical realism was framed in new colors.

On world stage two of the most famous representatives of this style came out. Lev Nikolaevich Tolstoy, who glorified his name with intensely social novels, and Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoevsky with psychological dramas. Nietzsche admired the latter, creating a model of the “superman” under the impression of the work “The Brothers Karamazov”.

Both writers emphasized the uniqueness of the human soul. They looked for reasons for actions own heroes, and depicted them with special aestheticism.

The last realists in Russia can be called Bunin and Kuprin. After them, they were replaced by social realism. A new era has arrived. In the West, the style developed further. It was influenced by other trends and modified.

Realism in painting

The new style affected all facets of art. Painting was not left out either. Artists began to comprehend the depths of human essence, and then depict it on paper.

Since the main features of this style in Russia were the principles of the struggle for freedom and equality, they tried to draw poor people. Criticalism quickly became the favorite movement of all residents of the country.

In 1863, the “St. Petersburg Artel of Artists” arose, and in 1970 it was renamed the “Association of Mobile art exhibitions". The composition included 14 outstanding painters with common interests who left the Imperial Academy of Arts in protest.

They called themselves the Itinerants. These included Repin, Shishkin, Savrasov, Perov, Surikov, Serov, Levitan and many others wonderful artists. Kramskoy was the ideological leader for many years.

They carried with them realism in painting, creating landscapes, historical paintings, portraits. In their works they depicted the contemporary life of the working people of Russia.

At the beginning of the twentieth century, all the traditions of this style finally became stronger. Then the artists Ivanov, Korovin, Serov worked.

Their paintings became an intermediate stage from the critical to the socialist style. In Soviet times, realism received a new breath and became the most popular movement in art.

Russian literature

At the beginning of the nineteenth century, the Enlightenment and Romanticism were in crisis. Subjectivity was quickly going out of fashion. The younger generation of artists became increasingly interested in reality.

The new style took shape in the unstable conditions of revolutions and fundamental changes in the worldview of peoples and countries, forming the main features of realism.

Only after the working class spoke out did writers think about his life. They begin to criticize and deeply resent the laws of serfdom and at the same time praise the fortitude of the human soul, which did not bend under the weight of life's burden.

The main characters are ordinary people from lower social strata. It is not necessary to have only positive qualities. Realists admit that a person has not only virtues, but also vices.

Main themes of style

Literature began to closely interact with everyday life. Many realists began to revel in the ugly, glorifying it.

The morals that reigned at that time began to give in to desperate criticism. The terrible living conditions of serfs and beggars appear on the surface, adding up the main features of realism.

One of the main images characteristic of this style was the rich, jaded aristocrat. He always has everything he wants, and he gets it in any way.

Religious fanatics are also subject to sharp criticism. Scholastic education is thrown far back. Progress becomes the main idea, the main aspiration of the heroes.

Outstanding representatives of foreign literature of that time - Schiller and Goethe - supported the ideas of the bourgeoisie in the struggle for their own rights, as well as nations for independence.

Feudal society itself declines and becomes a relic of the past.

Hero of the time

Realists describe in their works the everyday life of an ordinary person. Saltykov-Shchedrin and Chekhov are not afraid to show how life can take tragic turns, testing the main characters.

It was typical for realists of the 19th century in Russia to show all the conflicts and contradictions of society. Just as reality was constantly moving rather than being constant, so too did the heroes evolve.

After its heyday during the Romantic period, poetry began to fade into oblivion. In its place came dramaturgy and folk epic.

The comedy genre ceased to belong to romance, but began to illuminate social aspects. New life Gogol breathed into him with the novel “The Inspector General”. Love theme it practically does not show, but the absurdity of outdated social norms and the rules become the main line. main topic- all the horror of the system of bribery and embezzlement widespread at that time.

Russian critical realism in the country of that time was becoming popular. The intelligentsia fights for the rights and freedoms of the poor.

Now it is not physical, but moral beauty that dominates. Hard work takes on a romantic connotation.

Critical realism in Russia

The founder of realism in Russia, Pushkin borrowed his ideas from the Decembrist movement. His characters do not try to distance themselves from social and political events. They are directly connected with them, involved in the abyss of what is happening.

The poet worries about the oppression of other people. He sees everything that happens to the poor. Being a member of the highest circles of society, Pushkin remained faithful to the ideas of equality of all people.

Alexander Sergeevich remained a humanist until the end of his life. Humanism came to him even while writing “Boris Godunov”.

Pushkin’s ideas were supported by Nikolai Vasilyevich Gogol. His main realistic work is “Dead Souls”. He passionately begins to criticize the reality of that time. Gogol tries to shake the ossified, dying and static foundations. Using the comedy genre, the writer ridicules the absurdities of a backward society.

Having started with romance himself, in the forties he mercilessly criticizes it. The writer does not hide the fact that he was the same.

Turgenev made a new round in the development of realism with the book “Notes of a Hunter.” He tries to focus on modern history, introducing subjective features into it.

The novel "Fathers and Sons" brings the conflict of generations to light. Almost all social classes are shown in one book, political positions, vices of society.

Dostoevsky deals with the fate of insignificant people. He describes the tragedy and hardship of life for the poor. Dostoevsky revolutionizes and excites the public by describing the fates of people whom people try to forget. The writer still hopes that in the future people will be able to become more moral. Good will definitely defeat evil.

Critical realism is similar in its main features anywhere in the world. The main characters are truth-tellers. They want to change the world. Every day they face harsh realities. At the same time, they do not lose optimism until their last breath. Often their destinies end in a rather tragic way. Writers of this style tried to teach readers something. Open your eyes to the world. Achieve changes in consciousness.

They succeeded. Critical realism gave rise to social movements and the struggle for freedom. Russian associates of this style prepared the foundation for the fight for the rights of the working class.